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'PAF1TM3MT  OF  CIVIL 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION 
IN  BUILDINGS. 


WITH 


NUMEROUS  PRACTICAL   ILLUSTRATIONS 
OF  HIGH  BUILDINGS. 


BY 


WILLIAM   H.  BIRKMIRE, 

Author  of  "Architectural  Iron  and  Steel" 

and 
Compound  Riveted  Girders  as  Applied  in  the  Construction  of  Buildings? 


NEW  YORK: 

JOHN   WILEY   &   SONS. 

LONDON  :   CHAPMAN   &   HALL,   LIMITED. 

1902. 


Engineering 
Library 


COPYRIGHT,  1893, 

BY 

WILLIAM   H.  BIRKMIRE. 


ROBERT  DRUMMOND,    ELECTROTYPER  AND   PRINTER,    NEW  YORK. 


PREFACE. 


THE  author  has  endeavored  in  this  volume  to  describe 
and  illustrate  the  method  of  skeleton-constructed  buildings ;  a 
new  type  of  structure,  which  calls  for  principles  entirely  differ- 
ent from  the  old  system  of  cast-iron  fronts  and  cast-dowelled 
columns  with  wooden  girders. 

He  has  been  induced  to  prepare  it  from  the  fact  that  the 
improvements  in  modern  iron  construction,  especially  in  high 
buildings,  has  been  so  rapid  during  the  past  few  years  that  no 
work,  however  recent,  meets  the  latest  requirements. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  subject  of  the  strength 
of  columns  has  been  ably  treated  of  again  and  again,  tables  of 
tests  of  various-shaped  columns  are  given,  and  in  a  few  chap- 
ters especial  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  different  shapes  of  iron  and  steel  in  columns 
for  making  rigid  connections  with  the  floor  beams,  curtain-wall 
girders  and  with  each  other — a  necessary  requirement,  indis- 
pensable to  good  construction.  Other  chapters  are  devoted  to 
the  details  and  calculations  attending  the  erection  of  high  build- 
ings using  the  skeleton  construction, — the  system  of  wind-brac- 
ing, curtain-wall  supports,  and  foundations. 

WM.  H.  BIRKMIRE. 

NEW  YORK,  April,  1893. 


105957 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I. 
GENERAL  AND  DESCRIPTIVE. 

PAGE 

Development  of  the  Skeleton  Construction I 

The  Skeleton  Construction  and  how  Composed 2 

Conditions  imposed  by  the  New  York  Building  Law  upon  the  Use  of  Cur- 
tain Walls 2 

Variations  of  the  Skeleton  Construction 2 

Representative  Chicago  High  Buildings 3 

The  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  Building,  Chicago 4 

The  Owings  Building,  Chicago 5 

The  German  Opera  House,  Chicago 6 

The  Masonic  Temple,  Chicago 8 

Representative  New  York  High  Buildings 9 

New  Netherlands,  N.  Y .' 9 

The   World  Building,  N.  Y 12 

The  Manhattan  Life  Insurance  Building,  N.  Y 14 

New  York  Sun  Building 10 

New  York  Building  Law  in  Relation  to  Skeleton  Construction 13 


CHAPTER   II. 

COLUMNS. 

Buildings  of  New  York  in  which  Cast-iron  Columns  are  Used 20 

"         "  Chicago       "      "  "  "       "     20 

"         "  New  York  "      "      Wrought-iron  and  Steel  Columns  are  Used.  20 
The    Height  of  Buildings    Using  Cast-iron    compared   with   those   Using 

Wrought-iron  and  Steel  Columns t , 21 

Cast-iron  Columns 21 

Wrought-iron  and  Steel  Columns 22 

The  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Different  Shapes  of  Compound  Sec- 
tions   24 

Cost  of  Columns ...    24 

Availability  of  Material  for  Columns 25 

The  Advantages  of  Different  Shapes  of  Columns  for  Connections 25 

v 


VI  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The  New  York  Building  Law  Relating  to  the  Strength  of  Columns 26 

Strength  of  Cast-iron  Columns. 28 

Factors  of  Safety  for  Cast-iron  Columns. 31 

Strength  of  Wrought-iron  and  Steel  Columns 32 

Tests  of  Phoenix  Columns.     Table 33 

"      "Latticed        "                  " 34 

"      "Z-bar            "                  "     34 

"  Wrought-iron  Box  Columns.     Table 35 

Strength  of  Steel  Column 35 

Ultimate  Strength  of  Wrought-iron  Columns.     Table 36 

Elements  of  Z-bar  Columns.     Tables 37 

Safe  Load  on    "  "  " 391045 

Safe  Load  for  Phoenix  "               "       46 

Dimensions  of      "         "               "       47 

CHAPTER    III. 

COLUMN  CONNECTIONS. 

Cast-iron  Column  with  Wooden  Girders • 49 

"         Connection  in  the  Skeleton  Frame, , , 52 

Z-Bar  Column  Connection. . .  ; 53 

Phoenix     "              "            56 

Connection  of  Column  Sections  made  up  of  Angles  and  Plates 58 

Rivet  Spacing  in  Column  Connections , 61 

CHAPTER    IV. 

FLOOR  LOADS  AND  FLOOR  FRAMING. 

Dead  Loads 63° 

Live  Loads 63 

New  York  Building  Law  of  1892  in  Relation  to  Floor  Loads 63 

Chicago  Practice  Relating  to  the  Calculation  of  the  Dead  and  Live  Load 

upon  Floors 64, 

Floor  Framing 66- 

To  Determine  Coefficient  for  Beams , 67 

Properties  of  Wrought-  iron  I-Beams 68 

Deflection 63 

Coefficient  for  Steel  Beams 69 

Properties  of  Steel  I-beams 69 

"  Wrought-iron  Channels 70 

"           "  Steel  Channels 71 

Beam  Connections 72 

New  York  Building  Law  Relating  to  Beam  Connections 73 

Floor  Arches 77 

Brick  Arches 78 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS.  vii 

PAGB 

Porous  Terra-cotta  Arches 78 

Concrete  Arches 80 

Weight  of  Porous  Terra-cotta  Blocks 80 

Corrugated  Iron  and  Steel  Arches 81 

The  Gustavino  Tile  Arch 81 

Tie-rods 82 


CHAPTER   V. 
EXAMPLES  OF  HIGH  BUILDINGS. 

The  Home  Life  Insurance  Building 

Floor  Plan 86 

Beam     " 86 

Curtain  Walls 89 

Columns  and  Girders f  go 

Table  of  Material  in  the  Steel  Column  with  Loads 92 

"      "         "         "     "      "      Girders 94 

SPECIFICATION. 

General gg 

Quality  of  Steel g6 

Rivet  Steel. 97 

Workmanship. gy 

Framing  of  Top  Story  and  Spire. gS 

Painting  at  the  Works g8 

Anchors , 93 

Painting  at  the  Building ,  gg 

Cast  Iron ; 101 

Lintels ior 

Base  for  Wrought-iron  Smoke  Flue 101 

Plates ioi 

Door  to  Flue 101 

Frame  to  Ash-lift ioi 

Vault  Lights ioi 

Curved  Skylight . . . ,    102 

Coal-hole  Covers 102 

Sills  to  Doors  to  Roof 102 

Bronze  Saddles 102 

Cast-iron  Mullion 102 

Columns  to  Elevator  Shaft 103 

Sills           "         "             "    103 

Stairs 103 

Guards  to  Elevator  Shaft 104 


viii  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Electro-plating 104 

Partition  to  Cellar  Stairs • 105 

Main  Entrance  Doprs , 105 

Wrought-iron  Boiler  Flue 105 

Furring 106 

Floors  beneath  Elevators 106 

Skylight  over  Main  Office  and  Elevators 106 

Glass  under  Skylight 106 

Skylights  in  Top  Story 107 

Floor  Lights 107 

Window  Guards 107 

Grating  Doors  over  Ash-lift 107 

Platform  over  Elevators 107 

Clamps 108 

General 108 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING. 

Floor  Plan no 

Beam     " in 

Column  Detail,  Sway-bracing • 116 

Table  of  Materials  in  the  Columns  with  Loads 118 

SPECIFICATION. 

Conditions . 119 

Time  of  Completion 120 

Payments 121 

Sub-contract , 122 

Materials  and  Workmanship 122 

Delivery  and  Storage 122 

Wrought  Iron 123 

Steel * 124 

Cast  Iron 124 

Tests. 124 

Construction  of  Works 124 

Setting 128 

Painting 129 

Beams  and  Channel-bars 129 

Girders 131 

Box  Girders 131 

Tie-rods 131 

Anchors,  Straps,  Clamps,  etc 132 

Tie-rods 1 34 

Sway -braces 134 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE 

Lintels  of  Cast  Iron 135 

Pillars  of  Wrought  Iron 136 

Posts 157 

Cast-iron  Base-plates  137 

Roofs 138 

Staircases 138 

Ladders 140 

Railings 141 

Gates 141 

Guards :..... 142 

Grille-work 142 

Gratings   . . . . , 142 

Partitions,  Enclosures,  Floors,  etc 142 

Iron  Shutters 144 

Iron  Doors , 145 

Posts  for  Doors 145 

Light  Cast-iron  Work t , 145 

Deck  and  Tank  House 146 

Patent  Lights 146 

Boiler  Flue 148 

Elevator  Fronts 149 

Sidewalk  Elevator 150 

Miscellaneous ,  151 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  JACKSON  BUILDING. 

Floor  Beam  Spacing 152 

Calculation  for  Floor  Weights 153 

Column  Connections 153 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE  NEW  NETHERLAND,  NEW  YORK. 

Floor  Plan 158 

Beam  Plan 158 

Columns 161 

Foundation  for  Columns 163 

Wall  Thicknesses 163 

Table  of  Columns 165 

The  Waldorf,  N.  Y 1O6 

Floor  Plan !66 

Beam  Plan 169 

The  Postal  Telegraph  Building,  N.  Y 170 


X  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

WIND-BRACING. 

PAGB 

Wind-pressure J74' 

Wind-bracing  in  the  Venetian  Building,  Chicago 174 

Curtain-walls i?8 

Curtain-wall  Supports ....  179 

CHAPTER   X. 
THE  OLD  COLONY  BUILDING,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

The  Loads  used  in  Calculations  for  the  Building 190- 

Chicago  Building  Law  relating  to  Steel  or  Iron  Beams  in  Foundations. . . .  192 

Wind-bracing— Portal  Arches 195 

CHAPTER   XI. 
THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.  Y. 

Office  Arrangement 210 

Arrangement  of  Beams  and  Girders 210 

Cast-iron  Columns 214 

Steel  Columns 216 

Riveting 218 

Cast-iron  Lintels 219 

Framing  in  Fire-proof  Block  Partitions ^ 219. 

Anchoring  of  Walls 219 

Arcade  at  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth  Stories 220^ 

Tower  and  Dome 220- 

Foundations  by  the  Pneumatic  Process 222 

Caisson  Detail 227 

Cantilever  Construction 229* 

To  Determine  the  Nature  of  the  Soil , 233. 

Foundations  on  Rock 233 

Foundations  upon  Clay 234 

"  "  Sand 234 

"  Piles 234 

"  "      Steel  Rails  and  T-beams.... 236, 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 

Fig.  I.  The  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  Building,  Chicago,  111.  4 

2.  The  Owings  Building,  Chicago,  111 ...  5 

3.  The  German  Opera  House,  Chicago,  111 6 

4.  The  Masonic  Building,  Chicago,  111 8 

5.  The  Proposed  New  York  Sun  Building 0  10 

6.  The  World  Building,  N.  Y 12 

7.  Manhattan  Life  Insurance  Building,  N.  Y 14 


CHAPTER   II. 

8.  Cast-iron  H-Column  with  Open  Web  ............................  21 

9.  "         "        "         "     Closed"    ............................  21 

10.  "        Rectangular  Column  Section  .........................  21 

11.  "  "  "  "        ..........................  21 

12.  "        Double  "  "      .........................  21 

13.  "        Circular  ",  "      ..........................  21 

14.  Z-Bar  Column  Section  ...............  *  .........................  22 

15.  "  "          "       with  Cover  Plates  .........................  22 

16.  "  "  "          "         "          "      .........................  22 

17.  Z-Bar  Column  Section  Used  in  Venetian  Building,  Chicago  .......  22 

18.  Column  Section  of  Angles  and  Plates  .......  ....................  22 

19.  "  "      with  Web  and  Cover  Plates  ...........  22 

20.  Box  Column  Section  ...........................................  22 

21.  "  "  "         ...............................  ............  22 

22.  Phoenix  Column  Section  .........  .  ...........................  .  ,  23 

23.  Rectangular  Wrought-iron  or  Steel  Column  Sections  ..............  23 

24.  "  «•  "       "  "  "        ..............  23 


26.  Octagons                    "           <e       "           "            "       ............  .  23 

27.  Channel  Column  Section  .............  .  ..  .......................  23 

28.  "        Latticed        "      .......................................  23 

29.  Box  Column  with  Plates  and  Latticing  ..........................  23 

30.  Plate  and  Box  Column  Section  showing  Notation  as  Used  in  the 

Calculation  for  the  Moment  of  Inertia  ........................  36 

xi 


-xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

CHAPTER   III. 

PAGE 

Fig.  31,  32.  Cast-iron  Column  Connections;  with  Wooden  Girders 49,  50 

33.  "     Iron  Girders 51 

34.  "  "  in  the  Skeleton  Frame. 52 

35.  36.  Z-bar  Column  Connections 54,  55 

37.  Phoenix         "  "  57 

38.  Wrought-iron  or  Steel  Box  Column  Connections 58 

39.  Wrought-iron  or  Steel  Column  Connections  made  up  of  Plates 

and  Angles 59 

CHAPTER   IV. 

40.  Beam  Connections ,* 76 

41.  Porous  Terra-cotta  Arches  and  Ceilings 79 

42.  43.  ^">rrugated  Arches ..." 82 

CHAPTER   V. 

45.  Home  Life  Insurance  Building,  New  York,  Front  Elevation 84 

46.  Beam  Plan  as  Constructed 87 

47.  Floor  Plan  as  originally  Started 88 

48.  Beam     "    "          "  "       88 

49.  Section  and  Part  Elevation  of  Rear  Wall  showing  Mullions  and 

Facias 90 

50.  Transverse  Section  of  Masonry,  Elevations  of  Columns  and  Floor 

Girders 91 

51.  Transverse  Section 97 

52.  Longitudinal    " 100 

CHAPTER   VI. 

53.  Havemeyer  Building. 109 

54.  Typical  Floor  Plan in 

55.  Beam  Plan 112 

56.  Roof  Plan , 113 

57.  Foundation  Plan 113 

58.  Transverse  Section 115 

59.  Detail  of  Sway  Braces .,,,...„ 115 

60.  Column  and  Base-plate  Detail 117 

61.  Boiler  Flue 118 

CHAPTER   VII: 

62.  Front  Elevation,  Jackson  Building 151 

63.  Typical  Floor  Plan 152 

64.  Column  Connections » 153 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  Xlil 

PAGB. 

Fig.  65.  Double  Beam  Girder  Connection  with  Cast  Column «. . ..  154 

66.  Detail  of  Top  of  Column  showing  Girder  Supporting  Upper  Walls.  154 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

67.  The  New  Netherland,  New  York. . , , 157 

68.  Floor  Plan , 159 

69.  Beam  Plan „ 160 

70.  Column  Detail . ...  162 

71.  Section  of  Court  Wall 164 

72.  Wall  Section  above  the  Eighth  Story „ . 164 

73.  "  "      below    "          "          " 164 

74.  The  Waldorf,  New  York 167 

75.  Floor  Plan 168 

76.  Beam  Plan  over  Dining  Room... 169 

77.  Postal  Telegraph  Building,  New  York 171 

CHAPTER    IX. 

78.  Venetian  Building,  Chicago,  111 173 

79.  Typical  Floor  Plan  of  Venetian  Building <, . . . „ ,  1 75 

80.  Part  Transverse  Section  of  "  " 176 

81.  Wind-strain  Diagram  of        "  "         176 

82.  Section  of  Curtain  Wall  supported  by  two  I  Beams. 179 

83.  "       "         "          "  "  "    Plate  Girder 179. 

84.  "       "         "          "  "  "two  Channels 180 

85.  "       "         "          "  "  "    Plate  Girder 180 

86.  J*       "   Spandrel  Support  in  Venetian  Building,  Chicago 181 

87.  "       "         "  "         te  Ashland  Block,  Chicago 181 

88.  "       "         "  te         "         "  "  " 182- 

89.  "       "        "  "         "  the  Fair  Building,    <f       182 

90.  Plan  and  Elevation  of  a  Steel-rail  Foundation «....«, 186 


CHAPTER  X. 

90.  The  Old  Colony  Building,  Chicago,  111 184 

91.  Typical  Floor-plan  of  the  Old  Colony  Building 186 

92.  Beam-plan  of  the  Old  Colony  Building 189 

93.  Foundation-plan  of  the  Old  Colony  Building 191 

94.  Vertical  Section  through  Foundation  showing  Cantilever  Construc- 

tion   193 

95.  Transverse  Section  showing  Portal  Arches 196 

96.  General  Elevation  of  Portal  Arches 199 

97.  Detail  of  Portal  Arch 200 


XIV  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

'Fig.  98,   Detail  of  Column  Connection 202 

99,  Construction  of  Corner  Bays 204 

100.  Section  of  Bay „   205 

CHAPTER   XI. 

101.  The  Manhattan  Life  Insurance  Building,  New  York 207 

102.  Typical  Floor-plan 211 

103.  Typical  Beam  and  Girder  Plan 212 

104.  Section  of  New  Street  and  Side  Walls 214 

105.  Cast-iron  Column-joint  Detail , 215 

106.  Steel  Column-joint  Detail 217 

107.  Trusses  supporting  Recessed  Front  at  Fifteenth  Floor 220 

108.  Section  showing  Manner  of  Excavating  in  Caissons ....   223 

109.  Plan  of  Caissons  and  Arrangement  of  Column  Bases 226 

1 10.  Sectional  View  and  Top  View  of  Caisson 228 

in.  Caisson  Sections 228 

112.  Transverse  Section  of  Foundations  and  Cantilever  Girder 229 

113.  Cantilever  Girder  Detail 230 

114.  Steel-rail  Foundation 236 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


CHAPTER   I. 
GENERAL   AND   DESCRIPTIVE. 

THE  method  of  skeleton  construction  has  been  developed 
by  the  use  of  iron  and  steel  in  the  erection  of  fire-proof  build- 
ings, and  it  seems  to  have  solved  the  problem  of  economizing 
space  in  the  lower  floors  of  high  and  narrow  buildings.  In 
the  ordinary  methods  of  building,  the  higher  the  wall  the 
thicker  it  must  be  at  its  lower  parts,  but  the  lower  stories  are 
the  most  valuable ;  yet  it  is  in  these  that  the  greatest  area  of 
a  valuable  lot  must  be  surrendered  to  enormously  thick  walls. 
Therefore,  every  foot  gained  on  the  inside  measurements 
increases  .the  availibility  of  the  structure. 

In  the  buildings  where  the  skeleton  construction  is  used 
throughout,  heavy  masonry  walls  are  not  known,  and  what 
appears  to  be  such  in  the  finished  state  is  simply  a  veneer  of 
some  fire-proof  material,  yet  the  frame  of  the  building  is  not 
a  mere  heap  of  beams  and  columns ;  but  as  one  example  after 
another  is  erected  we  find  that  the  details  and  connections  are 
being  carefuly  studied,  and  the  whole  braced  and  anchored  so 
completely  that  the  metal  construction  may  be  raised  hun- 
dreds of  feet  from  foundation  to  roof  without  the  aid  of  any 
masonry — a  great  metal  structure,  strong  in  its  own  strength, 
not  only  to  carry  the  direct  loads  which  may  be  placed  upon 


2  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

it,  but  also  to  resist  all  lateral  strains  to  which  it  may  be  sub- 
jected. 

The  architectural  appearance  of  our  large  cities  is  being 
rapidly  altered  by  this  new  system.  It  imposes  no  new  con- 
ditions on  the  architect,  except  as  to  the  engineering  of  the 
metal  frame  ;  and  in  a  few  years,  with  the  skill  already  dis- 
played in  treating  these  problems,  many  new  designs  will  be 
brought  forth,  notwithstanding  the  great  height  to  which  they 
are  built. 

The  skeleton  construction  consists  in  the  use  of  cast-iron, 
wrought-iron,  or  wrought-steel  columns  in  the  side-walls,  con- 
nected longitudinally  at  the  floor  levels  with  beams,  lattice  or 
compound  riveted  girders  supporting  the  thin  curtain  walls 
12  to  20  inches  in  thickness;  in  addition  the  weight  of  the 
floors  are  transmitted  to  the  longitudinal  girders  and  columns, 
so  that  the  latter  support  the  entire  building. 

The  thin  curtain  walls  are  generally  built  of  brick,  and 
extend  from  the  top  of  any  wall  girder  to  the  underside  of  the 
next  story  girders,  extending  a  sufficient  distance  outside  to 
cover  the  girders  and  columns  with  masonry,  and  continue  in 
this  manner  to  the  top  of  the  building.  v 

The  New  York  building  law  imposes  certain  conditions 
upon  the  use  of  the  curtain  walls,  in  that  the  curtain  walls  of 
the  lower  stories  shall  be  built  thicker.  Why  this  is  so  the 
author  has  not  been  able  to  determine,  as  a  12-inch  wall  from 
foundation  to  roof  resting  upon  these  wall  girders  would  seem 
-sufficient  for  all  purposes. 

There  are  some  variations  in  the  use  of  the  skeleton  frame 
which  will  also  be  fully  illustrated  and  described  in  the  pages 
to  follow.  In  some  cases  the  frame  work  of  columns  and 
girders  are  carried  up  to  within  four  or  five  stories  of  the  roof ; 
then  continuous  girders  are  placed  upon  the  top  of  columns 
to  support  the  upper  stories  d'  masonry  walls. 

In  some  cases  the  columns  begin  at  the  base  course  on 
stone,  iron,  or  steel  beams. 


GENERAL   AND   DESCRIPTIVE.  3 

In  others  from  the  top  of  foundation-walls  level  with  the 
sidewalk  or  curb  level. 

Another  variation  is  where  the  walls  and  columns  are  sep- 
arated, the  walls  built  heavy  enough  to  carry  their  own  weight, 
and  the  columns  support  the  floor  and  their  loads. 

Then  again  the  longitudinal  girders  may  be  placed  in  every 
second  floor,  and  the  walls  are  made  20  to  24  inches  in  thick- 
.  ness  below  the  fourth  or  fifth  tier. 

When  the  first  examples  of  the  skeleton  construction  were 
completed  many  questions  were  raised,  and  no  doubt  there 
exists  in  the  minds  of  many  at  the  present  time  that  the 
greater  expansion  of  one  material  over  another  might  work 
some  trouble.  Events  have  proven  that  the  temperature  of 
this  climate  from  the  greatest  cold  to  the  greatest  heat  exerts 
no  appreciable  effect,  especially  while  the  metal  is  covered 
with  masonry  or  some  fire-proof  material. 

Representative  Chicago  High  Buildings. — Very  many 
journals  have  been  devoting  much  space  to  descriptions  of  the 
steel  skeleton  type  of  buildings,  more  especially  those  of  Chi- 
cago, and  the  majority  of  writers  call  it  the ."  Chicago  Steel 
Skeleton  Construction." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Chicago's  business  districts  has 
undergone  a  remarkable  transformation  within  a  few  years,  as 
any  one  who  visits  that  city  to-day  would  scarcely  believe 
that,  something  like  eight  years  ago,  the  tallest  buildings  were 
not  ever  eight  stories  high. 

Immediately  after  the  Great  Fire  that  totally  ruined  the 
business  district,  the  city  was  built  up  hurriedly ;  many  hand- 
some buildings  were  erected,  and  these  have  been  torn  down 
to  give  way  to  very  high  structures,  which  command  much 
admiration  throughout  the  country. 

One  of  the  first  of  the  many  tall  buildings  erected  was  the 
Montauk  Block,  which  stands  on  Monroe  Street,  just  west  of 
Dearborn.  It  was  built  about  eight  years  ago,  and  is  ten 


4  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

stories  high.     When  contrasted  with  some  of  the  latest  struct- 
ures it  is  comparatively  insignificant. 

The  Woman's   Christian    Temperance   Union  Building,  as 
shown  in  the  above  engraving,   Fig.    I,  popularly  called  the 


FIG.  i. 


Woman's  Temple,  because  it  was  built  by  the  ladies  of  that 
organization  from  contributions  raised  in  small  sums  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  is  perhaps  the  handsomest  big  building 
in  Chicago.  Its  lines  are  so  proportioned  that  its  enormous 
height  rarely  elicits  comment. 


GENERAL   AND  DESCRIPTIVE.  5 

Then,  again,  the  Owing's  Building.  Fig.  2,  situated  on 
Dearborn  and  Adams  Streets,  on  account  of  its  immense 
height,  as  contrasted  with  its  slim  frontage,  is  one  of  the  nota- 
ble structures  of  Chicago.  The  German  Opera  House,  Fig.  3, 
is  another  of  the  striking  buildings  in  that  city.  Chicago  may 


FIG.  2. — THE  .OWING'S  BUILDING,  CHICAGO. 

not  count  more  tall  buildings  than  in  other  cities,  but  she  has, 
no  doubt,  a  greater  number  at  present  of  "  sky-scrapers "  as 
they  are  called  in  the  West,  within  a  given  area. 

The  Masonic  Temple  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
achievements  of  high  building  construction  and   engineering 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


FIG   3. — GERMAN  OPERA  HOUSE,  CHICAGO,  ILL.     ADLER  &  SULLIVEN, 
ARCHITECTS. 


GENERAL   AND   DESCRIPTIVE.  7 

(see  perspective,  Fig.  4).*  It  is  situated  at  the  corner  of  State 
and  Randolph  Streets,  and  designed  by  Messrs.  Burnham  and 
Root,  architects  of  Chicago.  The  building  extends  170  feet 
on  State  Street  to  a  40  feet  alley,  and  113  feet  on  Randolph 
Street  to  a  25  feet  alley.  The  height  from  the  sidewalk  to 
the  top  of  coping  is  274  feet.  The  building  is  20  stories,  and 
contains  5,436,000  cubic  feet  exclusive  of  the  court. 

The  street  fronts  are  of  dressed  granite  up  to  the  sills  of 
the  fourth-story  windows;  above  that  of  terra  cotta  and  brick, 
of  a  gray  and  mottled  color  to  match  the  granite.  There  are 
fourteen  passenger  elevators  arranged  in  a  circular  curve  at  the 
rear  of  the  main  entrance.  There  are  also  freight  elevators. 
All  balconies  have  floors'  and  soffits  of  marble  and  mosaic. 
Hall  columns  in  the  court  are  covered  with  alabaster.  All 
interior  metal  is  of  bronze  finish,  highly  ornamented.  The 
inside  court  is  lined  of  marble  throughout.  On  the  roof  is  a 
promenade  deck,  100  X  120  feet,  covered  with  a  skylight  and 
enclosed  with  glass.  To  the  top  of  this  skylight  from  the 
sidewalk  is  302'  \" .  All  piers  have  steel  columns  inside  which 
carry  all  the  floor  loads.  With  the  exception  of  six  piers  the 
whole  building  above  the  fourth  floor  is  carried  on  the  col- 
umns. Two  systems  of  vertical  bracing  run  through  the  nar- 
row way  of  the  building  from  top  to  bottom,  one  each  side  of 
the  elevators.  These  rods  run  through  two  floors  and  cross 
one  column.  Each  of  the  above  columns  or  pair  of  columns, 
as  mentioned,  are  provided  with  independent  footings,  which 
reduces  and  distributes  the  pressure  uniformly  on  the  soft  and 
treacherous  soil.  The  architects  of  Chicago  probably  have  to 
deal  with  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  for  securing  a  good 
foundation  for  these  heavy  buildings. 

The  soil  under  the  business  district  consists  of  a  black 
loamy  clay,  which  is  somewhat  firm  at  the  surface,  but  a  few 
feet  below  the  surface  the  soil  becomes  quite  soft,  growing 


*  For  a  fuller  description,  see  the  Engineering  Record,  Jan.  21,  1893. 


8 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


more  so  the  deeper  the  excavation  is  carried.  The  first  of 
the  large  structures  were  built  with  continuous  foundation 
walls  with  wide  footings.  This  method  did  not  prove  suc- 


FIG.  4.— MASONIC  TEMPLE,  CHICAGO,  ILL.     BURNHAM  &  ROOT,  ARCHITECTS. 

(From  Architecture  and  Building.) 

cessful.  After  many  experiments,  the  foundations  were  divided 
into  isolated  piers,  the  footing  being  carefully  proportioned, 
according  to  the  load  upon  it,  so  that  all  should  settle  at  exactly 
the  same  rate,  without  any  detri  ru-nt  to  the  superstructure. 


GENERAL  AND  DESCRIPTIVE,  9 

The  footings  of  the  piers  in  the  Masonic  Building,  as  in  the 
majority  of  Chicago  buildings,  are  built  of  steel  rails  and  con- 
crete, and  crossed  three  or  four  times,  thus  insuring  a  great 
spreading  in  a  small  height. 

Under  a  single  column  of  the  Masonic  Building  the  con- 
crete is  1 5' 2"  X  i$'  2".  On  top  of  this  18  steel  rails  were  laid; 
then  1 8  at  right  angles  to  these  ;  then  10  parallel  to  the  lower 
1 8  and  zo  parallel  to  the  upper  18,  making  a  total  of  56  pieces. 

The  old  Board  of  Trade  Building,  at  the  corner  of  La  Salle 
and  Dearborn  Streets,  lately  remodelled,  presents  a  front  re- 
markable even  in  the  city  of  tall  buildings.  From  a  seven- 
story  structure  of  rather  inferior  design' it  has  been  remodelled 
into  a  fourteen-story  palace. 

Down  on  Dearborn  Street  the  Manhattan  Block  is  an  im- 
mense structure,  eighteen  stories  high.  The  Tacoma  Building 
at  Madison  and  La  Salle,  was  considered  a  high  building  a 
few  years  ago ;  it  is  now  overshadowed  by  a  number  of  much 
taller  buildings. 

Representative  New  York  High  Buildings.^Consider- 
ing  the  present  rapid  development  of  the  skeleton  construc- 
tion and  this  necessity  for  high  buildings,  New  York  City 
takes  its  place  at  the  head,  not  only  in  the  designs,  but  in  the 
details  of  the  construction.  And  where  other  cities  have  con- 
fined their  high  structures  within  narrow  limits,  it  is  not  so  in 
New  York;  they  are  scattered  along  the  principal  thorough- 
fares from  the  Battery  to  Central  Park,  where  high  buildings 
are  quite  common. 

Among  the  many  notable  and  handsome  structures  adjoin- 
ing the  Park  are  the  New  Netherlands,  a  hotel  built  in  1892, 
by  W.  W.  Astor.  It  occupies  a  site  100  feet  by  125,  on  the 
corner  of  Fifth  Avenue  and  Fifty-ninth  Street,  and  has  a 
cellar  and  basement  below  the  street  level,  and  seventeen 
stories  above,  the  four  upper  stories  being  in  the  picturesque 
high  roof.  Nine  hundred  steel  columns  and  about  4500  steel 
beams  were  used  in  the  construction  of  this  building,  the 


10 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS, 


details  of  which,  and  other  parts  of  the  building  construction 
are  further  explained  and  illustrated  in  Chapter  VIII  of   this 


FIG.  5.— PROPOSED  OFFICE  BUILDING  FOR  THE  N.  Y.  SUN,  PARK  Row. 
volume.     The  Savoy  is  another  of  the   tall  buildings   in  the 
same  locality,  situated  at  the  southeast  corner  of  Fifth  Avenue 


GENERAL   AND   DESCRIPTIVE.  II 

and  Fifty-ninth  Street,  used  as  a  hotel.  It  measures  75  X  150 
feet,  and  has  an  extension  of  100  feet  more  at  the  rear.  It  is 
an  eleven-story  steel  frame  structure,  faced  with  Indiana  lime- 
stone, in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style  of  architecture.  It  was 
opened  in  1892. 

The  Plaza  Hotel,  directly  opposite  the  Savoy,  faces  the 
Plaza  at  the  Fifth  Avenue  and  Fifty-ninth  Street  entrance  to 
Central  Park,  overlooking  the  main  Park  entrance. 

The  Hotel  Majestic  is  another  of  these  high  and  elegant 
hotels  built  in  this  locality. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  lofty  and  extensive  apartment 
houses  in  the  vicinity  of  Central  Park.  One  of  the  largest  is 
the  Dakota,  at  Central  Park  West  and  Seventy-second  Street. 
It  is  a  many-gabled  building,  in  the  style  of  a  French  chateau. 

Then  in  Fifty-ninth  Street  near  Seventh  Avenue,  south 
side  of  the  Park,  are  the  Central  Park  or  Navarro  Flats,  which 
include  several  independent  houses  constructed  as  a  single 
building.  The  different  houses  in  the  group  are  known  as  the 
Madrid,  Granada,  Lisbon,  Cordova,  Barcelona,  Valencia,  Sala- 
manca, and  Tolosa,  all  combined,  with  numerous  balconies 
and  facades,  in  the  Spanish  style. 

The  Osborne,  Seventh  Avenue  and  Fifty-eighth  Street,  is 
another  tall  structure  of  the  above  class. 

At  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  city  the  greatest 
number  of  high  buildings  are  used  as  offices.  One  of  the 
finest  and  largest  is  the  Washington  Building,  at  the  foot  of 
Broadway,  overlooking  Battery  Park  and  the  Harbor.  The 
Washington  Building  was  completed  in  1884.  It  covers  17,000 
square  feet  of  land,  and  is  thirteen  stories  in  height,  the  two 
upper  stories  being  in  the  mansard  roof. 

Between  the  central  and  lower  portions  of  the  city  a  few 
of  the  highest  buildings  erected  and  about  to  be  erected  are 
shown  by  a  few  plates,  such  as  the  World  Building.  Fig.  6, 
erected  in  1889-90,  is  the  tallest  office  building  known,  reach- 
ing 309  feet  from  sidewalk  to  lantern  ;  or  375-J  feet  from  the 


12 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.  6. — THE  WORLD  BUILDING,  PARK  Row,  FACING  CITY  HALL  PARK,  N.  Y 
George  B.  Post,  Architect. 


GENERAL   AND  DESCRIPTIVE,  1 3 

bottom  of  foundation  to  the  top  of  the  flagstaff.  It  has  a 
huge  skeleton  of  iron  and  steel  sustaining  its  twenty-six 
stories. 

The  Manhattan  Life  Insurance  Company  is  preparing  to" 
erect  a  building  at  Nos.  64  and  68,  Broadway,  which  will  sur- 
pass the  World  Building  in  height — a  view  of  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  7.  The  building  is  sixteen  stories  above  the  sidewalk. 
Then  comes  the  seventeenth  story,  14  feet ;  the  eighteenth,  26 
feet ;  the  nineteenth,  23  feet ;  the  twentieth,  at  the  floor  of  the 
lantern,  27  feet,  making  a  total  of  326  feet  from  the  sidewalk. 
In  style  it  will  be  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  architecture 
of  lower  Broadway,  and  will  make  an  imposing  appearance 
among  its  stately  neighbors ;  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  the 
Columbia  Building,  Aldrich  Court,  the  Consolidated  Stock 
and  Petroleum  Exchange,  the  Union  Trust  Company,  and 
even  the  tall  spire  of  the  Trinity  Church  will  be  thrown  in  the 
shade. 

The  proposed  office  building  of  the  New  York  Sun,  sit- 
uated on  Park  Row  opposite  City  Hall  Park,  as  designed  by 
Bruce  Price,  architect,  and  shown  by  the  sketch  Fig.  5,  con- 
templates a  building  thirty-two  stories  in  height,  and  if  carried 
out  as  the  architect  intends  will,  no  doubt,  take  its  place  as 
one  of  the  handsomest  office  structures  in  existence. 

All  the  above  buildings  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  of  the 
skeleton  type  ;  but  a  number  of  the  principal  ones  using  this 
style  of  construction  are  further  described  and  detailed  in  the 
following  pages,  such  as  the  Havemeyer  Building,  Postal  Tele- 
graph, the  Home  Life  Insurance  Company,  the  Waldorf,  the 
Western  Union  Annex,  etc. 

New  York  Building  Law  in  Relation  to  Skeleton  Con- 
struction.— For  the  skeleton  construction,  the  existing  law, 
passed  April,  1892,  makes  some  provision  :  "Curtain  walls  of 
brick  built  in  between  iron  or  steel  columns,  and  supported 
wholly  or  in  part  on  iron  or  steel  girders,  shall  not  be  less 
than  twelve  inches  thick  for  fifty  feet  of  the  uppermost  height 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS, 


FIG.  7, — MANHATTAN  LIFE  INS.  Co.    BUILDING,  64   &  68  BROADWAY,  N.  Y. 
Kimball  &  Thompson,  Architects. 


GENERAL    AND   DESCRIPTIVE.  15 

thereof,  or  to  the  nearest  tiers  of  beams  to  that  measurement 
in  any  building  so  constructed;  and -every  lower  section  of 
fifty  feet  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  such  vertical  meas- 
urement, or  part  thereof,  shall  have  a  thickness  of  four  inches 
more  than  is  required  for  the  section  next  above  it  down  to 
the  tier  of  beams  nearest  to  the  curb-level ;  and  thence 
downwardly  the  thickness  of  walls  shall  increase  in  the  ratio 
prescribed  in  section  474  of  this  title  for  the  thickness  of 
foundation-walls. 

Curtain-walls  may  be  four  inches  less  in  thickness  than  is 
specified  respectively  for  walls  of  dwellings  and  buildings,  but 
no  curtain-wall  shall  be  less  than  twelve  inches  thick. 

Section  474. — Foundation  walls  shall  be  construed  to  in- 
clude all  walls  and  piers  built  below  the  curb-level  or  nearest 
tier  of  beams  to  the  curb,  to  serve  as  supports  for  walls,  piers, 
columns,  girders,  posts,  or  beams.  Foundation-walls  shall  be 
of  stone  or  brick.  If  built  of  stone  they  shall  be  at  least  eight 
inches  thicker  than  the  wall  next  above  them  to  a  depth  of 
twelve  feet  below  the  curb-level;  and  for  every  additional  ter» 
feet  or  part  thereof  deeper,  they  shall  be  increased  four  inches 
in  thickness.  If  built  of  brick  they  shall  be  at  least  four  inches 
thicker  than  the  wall  next  above  them  to  a  depth  of  twelve 
feet  below  the  curb-level,  and  for  every  additional  ten  feet,  or 
part  thereof  deeper,  they  shall  be  increased  four  inches  in 
thickness. 

The  footing  or  base  course  shall  be  of  stone  or  concrete  or 
both,  or  of  concrete  and  stepped  up  brick-work,  of  sufficient 
thickness  and  area  to  safely  bear  the  weight  to  be  imposed 
thereon  ;  if  the  footing  or  base  course  be  of  concrete,  the  con- 
crete shall  not  be  less  than  twelve  inches  thick;  if  of  stone, 
the  stones  shall  not  be  less  than  two  by  three  feet,  and  at  least 
eight  inches  in  thickness  for  walls  and  at  least  twelve  inches 
wider  than  the  bottom  width  of  said  walls,  and  not  less  than 
ten  inches  in  thickness  if  under  piers,  columns,  or  posts,  and  at 


1 6  •  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION   IN  BUILDINGS. 

least  twelve  inches  wider  on  all  sides  than  the  bottom  width  of 
said  piers,  columns,  or  posts. 

Section  485. — Where  columns  are  used  to  support  iron  or 
steel  girders  carrying  curtain-walls,  the  said  columns  shall  be 
of  cast-iron-,  wr ought-iron,  or  rolled  steel,  and  on  their  exposed 
outer  and  inner  surfaces  be  constructed  to  resist  fire  by  having 
a  casing  of  brick-work  not  less  than  four  inches  in  thickness 
and  bonded  into  the  brick-work  of  the  curtain-walls,  or  the 
inside  surfaces  of  the  said  columns  may  be  covered  with  an 
outer  shell  of  iron  having  an  air  space  between  ;  and  the  ex- 
posed sides  of  the  iron  or  steel  girders  shall  also  be  similarly 
covered  in  and  tied  and  bonded. 

When  the  thickness  of  the  curtain-walls  is  twelve  inches, 
the  girders  for  the  support  of  same  shall  be  placed  at  the  floor 
line  of  each  story,  commencing  at  the  line  where  the  thickness 
of  twelve  inches  starts  from,  and  when  the  thickness  of  such 
walls  is  sixteen  inches  the  girders  shall  be  placed  not  farther 
apart  than  every  other  story,  at  the  floor  line  commencing  at 
the  line  where  the  thickness  of  sixteen  inches  starts  from, 
provided  that  at  the  intermediate  floor  line  a  suitable  tie  of 
iron  or  steel  shall  rigidly  connect  the  columns  together  hori- 
zontally, and  that  the  ends  of  the  floor-beams  do  not  rest  upon 
the  said  sixteen-inch  walls. 

When  the  curtain-walls  are  twenty  inches  or  more  in  thick- 
ness and  rest  directly  on  the  foundation-walls,  the  ends  of  the 
floor-beams  may  be  placed  directly  thereon,  but  at  or  near  the 
floor  line  of  each  story  ties  of  iron  or  steel  encased  in  the 
brick-work  shall  rigidly  connect  the  columns  together  hori- 
zontally. 


CHAFFER    II. 
COLUMNS. 

Columns. — The  first  examples  of  the  skeleton  construe- 
tion  in  buildings  were  those  erected  with  cast-iron  columns. 
Cast-iron  at  the  time  of  their  erection,  and  no  doubt  is  at 
the  present  time,  produced  more  quickly  and  cheaper  than 
wrought-iron  or  steel  columns,  and  these  were  two  very  im- 
portant factors  in  the  problem. 

The  constructors  and  producers  of  cast-iron  advocate  its 
use  only  as  the  material  for  the  columns  inclosed  in  the  walls. 
They  claim  also  that  the  oxide  of  iron  paint  so  commonly 
used  for  coating  iron  soon  dries  out,  leaving  a  coating  of  dry, 
broken  scale  or  powder.  Between  the  columns  and  the  outer 
air  are  only  a  few  inches  of  brick  or  some  fire-proof  material, 
through  which  dampness  soon  finds  its  way.  In  wrought-iron, 
they  claim  that  rust  honeycombs  and  eats  entirely  through 
the  metal 

Mild  steel  rusts  faster  than  wrought-iron  at  first,  then 
slower.  Cast-iron,  on  the  contrary,  slowly  oxidizes  in  damp 
situations ;  rust  does  not  scale  from  it,  and  the  oxidation 
when  formed  is  of  much  less  dangerous  kind,  extending  only  a 
little  way  into  the  metal  to  about  the  thickness  of  a  knife- 
blade,  and  then  stops  for  good.  Cast-iron  of  goodly  thickness 
offers  a  far  better  resistance  to  fire,  or  fire  and  water  combined, 
than  wrought-iron  or  steel. 

The  experiments  undertaken  by  Prof.  Bauschinger,  of 

17 


1 8  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Munich,  in  reference  to  the  safety  of  cast-iron  columns  when 
exposed  to  the  action  of  great  heat  are  quoted.  "  Having 
arranged  some  cast  and  wrought  iron  columns  heavily  loaded, 
exactly  as  they  would  be  if  supporting  a  building,  had  them 
gradually  heated  ;  first,  to  three  hundred  degrees,  next  to  six 
hundred,  and  finally  to  red  heat,  then  suddenly  cooling  them 
by  a  jet  of  water,  just  as  might  happen  when  water  is  applied 
to  extinguish  a  fire. 

"  The  experiment  showed  that  the  cast-iron  columns,  al- 
though they  were  bent  by  the  extreme  heat  and  exhibited 
transverse  cracks  when  cold  water  was  applied,  yet  they  .sup- 
ported the  weight  resting  on  them  ;  while  the  wrought-iron 
columns  were  bent  before  arriving  at  the  red  heat,  and  were 
afterwards  so  much  distorted  by  the  water  that  the  restraight- 
ening  them  was  out  of  the  question  ;  in  fact,  if  supporting  a 
real  building,  they  would  no  doubt  have  utterly  collapsed 
under  the  weight  they  had  to  sustain." 

If  the  brick-work  or  fire-proofing  which  surrounds  the  wall 
or  interior  columns  can  be  depended  upon  as  a  protection  for 
the  metal  against  the  effects  of  fire  and  water,  the  above  ex- 
periment would  lose  its  weight  against  the  use  of  wrought- 
iron  or  steel. 

The  objection  to  wrought-iron  or  steel  on  account  of  rust- 
ing may  seem  more  real,  and  yet  we  have  seen  pieces  of 
wrought-iron  beams,  anchors,  etc.,  taken  from  very  old  walls 
unharmed  by  rust. 

There  is,  however,  considerable  distrust  of  cast-iron  in  high 
and  narrow  building,  especially  in  relation  to  the  connections 
with  the  floor  and  wall  girders.  Brackets  and  lugs  are  apt  to 
break  suddenly  and  completely,  but  with  wrought-iron  and 
steel  will  bend  a  great  deal  without  breaking,  and  that  rivets 
are  stronger  than  bolts.  To  this  objection  it  can  be  said  that 
the  brackets  and  lugs,  instead  of  being  cast  with  the  columns, 
can  be  put  on  with  angle-knee  connections,  drilled  holes  in  the 
columns  and  with  any  number  of  bolts,  which  in  a  great  many 


COLUMNS.  19 

of  our  high  buildings  has  proven  entirely  satisfactory,  where 
lateral  bracing  is  not  required. 

The  advocates  of  wrought-iron  and  steel  columns  claim 
that  cast-iron  is  rigid  ,and  unyielding,  and  that  its  coefficient 
of  elasticity  is  much  lower  than  that  of  wrought-iron  or  steel, 
and  the  cast-iron  column  is  not  as  stiff  as  the  others,  and  'will 
not  on  the  whole  produce  as  rigid  and  unyielding  a  structure. 

Where  high  and  narrow  buildings  are  concerned,  much  at- 
tention is  given  to  the  bracing  against  wind  forces — that  is,  in 
the  stiffness  of  the  joints  and  the  stability  of  the  structure 
upon  the  foundation,  and  when  the  bracing  is  a  portion  of  the 
frame  construction,  the  difficulty  of  doing  it  properly  with 
cast-iron  columns  is  very  great,  but  with  wrought-iron  or  steel 
these  difficulties  are  largely  removed. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  author  to  enter  into  any  dis- 
cussion on  the  question  of  which  should  be  adopted,  but  to 
confine  the  subject  to  what  has  already  been  done,  and  illus- 
trate the  practices  of  the  present  time,  especially  the  build- 
ings he  has  closely  followed  in  having  charge  of  the  con- 
structive details  at  the  Architectural  Iron  Works.  We  have 
very  many  handsome  buildings  constructed  where  cast-iron, 
wrought-iron,  and  steel  columns  have  been  exclusively 
adopted,  each  system  will  no  doubt  be  copied  for  years  to 
come  unless  some  radical  change  will  turn  the  tide  into  an- 
other channel. 

But  we  are  entering  on  an  age  of  steel.  Rolling  mills  pro- 
duce it  quicker  and  cheaper  than  any  other  metal,  and  the 
change  from  cast-iron  to  steel  for  columns,  beams,  and  girders, 
especially  in  our  large  buildings,  has  been  generally  adopted 
by  the  prominent  architects  throughout  the  country.  One 
after  another  the  advocates  of  cast-iron  have  fallen  into  line  in 
favor  of  wrought-iron  and  steel  in  high  and  narrow  buildings, 
but  for  buildin-gs  with  a  large  base  cast-iron  will  continue  to  be 
popular. 

Cast-iron  columns  have  been  used,  and  are  still  extensively 


20  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

adopted,  in  some  of  our  noted  buildings.  In  New  York  we 
have  in  course  of  construction,  together  with  those  already 
built : 

Postal  Telegraph  Building  D.,  L.  &.  W.  R.  R.  Building 

Decker  Bros.  Building  The  Western  Union  Annex 

The  Waldorf  Lincoln  Building 

Jackson  Building  Mclntyre  Building 

Scott  &  Bowne  Building  Mutual  Life  Annex  (wall  col's). 

In  Chicago  cast-iron  columns  have  been  used  in  such  build- 
ings as 

The  Rookery  The  Auditorium 

Home  Insurance  Building  The  Chamber  of  Commerce 

The  Monon  Block  Manhattan  Building 

Western  Bank  Note  Bldg.  Unity  Building 

Tacoma  Building  Owens  Building. 

Cold  Storage  Building 

Wrought-iron  and  steel  columns  have  been  used  in  New 
York  in  the  following  buildings : 

The  New  Netherlands  Home  Life  Ins.  Co.  Building 

Havemeyer  Building  Hotel  Majestic 

Lancashire  Building  Mail  and  Express 

World  Building  Mutual  Reserve  Fund  Building 

etc.  etc. 

In  Chicago  a  few  of  the  noted  wrought-iron  and  steel  struc- 
tures are : 

Rand  McNally  Building  Masonic  Temple 

The  Ashland  Block  German  Theatre 

Venetian  Building  The  Pontiac 

The  Kearsarge  Northern  Hotel 

The  Fair  Woman's  Temple,  etc, 

Many  noted  buildings  in  all  the  other  large  cities  have 
used  each  system. 

The  heights  of  buildings  using  in  cast-iron  compare  favor- 


COLUMNS. 


21 


ably  with  those  using  wrought-iron  and  steel — a  few  of  which 
are  compared  below : 


CAST-IRON  STRUCTURES. 


Chicago,  Rookery 164 

N.  Y.,      Postal  Telegraph  . 

Chicago,  Unity  Building. . .  210 

"         Tacorna  Building,  165 

"         Manhattan 210 


STEEL  STRUCTURES. 

Feet.  Stories.  Feet.  Stories. 

12  Chicago,  Northern  Hotel,     168  14 

14  "         Masonic  Temple,  254  20 

17         N.  Y.,    New  Netherlands,  217  17 

13  "         Home  Life 

16  "         Havemeyer 175  15 


Cast-iron  Columns  are  usually  made  hollow  round,  Fig. 
13,  or  when  built  in  walls,  as  in  the  skeleton  frame,  hollow 
square,  Fig.  10.  Some  of  the  variations  brought  about  by  the 
skeleton  frame  are  shown,  as  Fig.  8,  or  what  is  called  the  H- 
shape,  with  an  open  web,  and  Fig.  9,  similar  to  Fig.  8,  but  with 
a  solid  web. 

Then  again  we  have  the  modification  of  the  square  column, 
as  in  Fig.  u.  The  side  or  back  adjoining  the  party  wall  is 


l_l 


FIG.  8.          FIG.  9.         FIG.  10.         FIG.  n.         FIG.  12.         FIG.  13. 


moved  nearer  the  axis  of  the  column,  so  that  a  greater  dis- 
tance could  be  had  for  fire-proofing  the  body  of  the  columns. 
This  section  was  used  in  the  Mclntyre  Building,  Broadway  and 
Eighteenth  Street,  New  York,  and  changed  from  the  shape 
Fig.  10  to  this  by  the  architect,  and  approved  by  the  Building 
Department. 

The  square  column  encased  with  a  shell,  as  Fig.  12,  was 
used  in  one  of  the  first  buildings  adopting  the  skeleton  frame. 

In  making  a  selection  from  the  different  shapes  for  the 
skeleton  structure,  it  is  very  important  to  adopt  the  form  that 
presents  the  smoothest  or  unbroken  surface  for  connections 
with  the  floor  and  curtain-wall  girders. 

It  is  also   important   that   the   masonry  should    be   built 


22 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


solidly  around  the  columns.  The  H-sections,  Figs.  8  and  9,  are 
no  doubt  better  adapted  for  this  purpose  than  the  rectangular 
shapes,  Figs.  10,  II,  and  12. 

The  hollow  circular  column,  Fig.  13,  is  the  least  desirable 
for  building  in  with  the  walls,  more  difficult  to  fire-proof,  but 
in  connecting  with  the  girders  that  portion  of  the  column 
can  be  cast  square. 

Wrought-iron  and  Steel  Columns  as  used  for  the  skele- 
ton frame  are  various,  and  when  a  compound  column  section  is 
required  ;  very  many  rolled  shapes  can  be  riveted  together  to 
make  up  the  "required  section.  Those  made  up  of  Z-bars  and 
a  single  web  plate,  as  Fig.  14,  are  about  the  simplest  form  of 
riveted  columns. 


FIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  17. 


FIG.  1 8. 


FIG.  19. 


FIG.  20. 


FIG,  21. 


The  section  is  increased  by  the  use  of  cover  plates  riveted: 
to  the  outer  leg  of  the  Z's  and  shown  at  Fig.  15.  Then  again, 
we  have  the  rectangular  section  of  Z's,  Fig.  16.  The  section 
shown  by  Fig.  17  is  a  Z-bar  column  used  in  the  Venetian 
Building,  Chicago,  a  twelve-story  structure ;  the  additional 
required  area  being  made  up  of  plates  and  angles.  The  col- 
umn is  13^"  X  21"  X  27'.  i  J"  long. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  metal  near  the  neutral  axis  of 
a  column  is  good  for  little,  and  that  the  capacity  of  equal 
areas  varies  as  the  metal  is  removed  from  the  neutral  axis. 

It    seems,    therefore,    that   a   better   proportioned,  column- 


COLUMNS. 


•could  be  adopted  for  the  requirement  of  the  case.  In  Fig.  18 
the  column  section  is  made  up  of  four  angles  and  a  single  web, 
.and  in  Fig.  19  a  single  plate  is  added  or  a  number  of  plates  to 
make  up  the  required  section. 

Then  the  rectangular  shape,  Fig.  20,  made  up  of  angles 
and  plates,  requiring  eight  lines  of  rivets. 

The  author  has  not  been  able  to  find  a  section  like  that  of 
Fig.  21,  used  in  any  skeleton  frame.  It  is  made  up  of  the 
cheapest  rolled  sections — that  is,  angles  and  plates, — and  has 
many  advantages  for  fire-proofing  and  building  in  with  the  ma- 
sonry. Then  again,  the  greatest  amount  of  metal  is  farthest 
from  the  neutral  axis.  This  column  section  has  been  exten- 
sively used  by  the  P.  R.  R.  Co.  in  all  their  outside  work.  For 
strength  and  accessibility  for  painting,  it  seems  to  have  no 
superior. 

FIG.  22.  FIG.  23.  FIG.  24.  FIG.  25. 


FTG.  26. 


FIG.  27. 


FIG.  28. 


FIG.  2QL 


There  is  another  shape  which  is  more  or  less  used,  such 
as  that  shown  at  Fig.  22,  the  Phoenix  column,  and  other  new 
commercial  shapes,  such  as  could  be  conveniently  rolled,  as 
Figs.  23,  24,  25,  and  26. 

Fig.  27  may  be  either  of  plates  and  channels  or  latticed 
channels,  as  in  Fig.  28. 

In  Fig.  29  angles  are  used  at  each  corner;  two  sides  may 
be  latticed  and  the  other  sides  solid  plates,  or  all  sides  may  be 
latticed. 


24  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Any  of  these  sections,  if  used  in  the  ordinary  buildings,  will 
carry  the  load  usually  placed  upon  them,  with  the  unit  strain 
required  by  the  building  laws,  providing  the  columns  are  welt 
made,  with  the  loads  symmetrically  applied,  as  is  usual  in  the 
side  walls  of  the  skeleton  frame,  where  three  of  the  four  sides 
of  the  columns  connect  with  the  structure.  Almost  all  of  the 
above  sections  will  be  fully  explained  in  detail  in  the  examples 
of  actually  constructed  buildings  in  the  following  pages,  and 
the  preference  can  be  given  to  that  shape  which  will  best  serve 
the  purpose  of  the  building  to  be  erected. 

The  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Different 
Shapes  of  Compound  Sections. — There  are  many  points  of 
advantage  and  disadvantage  to  each  shape  which  must  be 
carefully  considered  before  deciding  the  proper  column  to 
use — i.e  : 

I.  Cost. — The  cost  of  the  column  when  in  its  finished 
state,  which  means  the  shapes  used  in  the  section  and  the  num- 
ber of  holes  to  be  punched  and  riveted.  In  the  Z-bar  column, 
Fig.  14,  there  are  five  different  members,  but  only  two  lines  of 
rivet-holes.  Fig.  18  of  plates  and  angles  has  the  same  number 
of  members  and  rivet-holes.  Z-bars  and  angles  are  probably 
as  easy  sections  to  roll  as  any  commercial  shapes.  These  col- 
umns have  the  advantage  in  only  requiring  two  lines  of  rivet- 
holes  to  be  punched  and  riveted.  But  if  a  heavier  section  is 
required,  plates  are  placed  on  the  outside,  then  six  lines  of 
holes  and  rivets  are  required.  Then  they  become  more  ex- 
pensive, and  in  Fig.  15  all  the  material  inside  the  square  is 
theoretically  lost. 

The  column  section,  Fig.  19,  is  used  in  some  of  our  noted 
buildings,  and  when  not  exceeding  six  lines  of  rivets  is  as  sat- 
isfactory as  Z-bar  columns. 

In  Fig.  21  the  same  simple  shapes  are  used  as  in  Fig.  20, 
and  is  to  be  preferred  in  cost  to  Fig.  17. 

Figs.  T/  and  20  have  eight  lines  of  rivets.  Fig.  21  has  ten 
lines.  The  Phoenix  column,  Fig.  22,  is  a  patented  shape,  and 


COLUMNS.  25 

only  rolled  by  one  rolling  mill,  but  it  has  its  advantages  in 
having  only  four  lines  of  rivets  in  its  smallest  section  ;  but  the 
area  can  be  increased  by  simply  placing  fillers  between  the 
segments,  and  it  still  only  requires  four  lines.  They  are  also 
made  in  eight  sections. 

The  same  remarks  might  apply  to  the  sections  in  Figs.  23, 
24,  25,  and  26,  although  the  author  is  not  aware  that  Figs.  23 
and  24  are  in  the  market. 

Figs.  27,  28,  and  29  are  made  up  of  ordinary  commercial 
shapes  that  can  be  bought  at  any  rolling  mill.  These  sections 
require  four  and  eight  lines  of  rivets. 

2.  Availability  of  Material. — It  is  best  to  make  up  the 
column   sections   of   shapes    manufactured    by  all  the   rolling 
mills,  and  not  those  patented  and  only  available  from  special 
places. 

Z-bars  are  at  the  present  manufactured  generally  through- 
out the  country,  and  all  rolling  mills  make  angles,  plates, 
channels,  and  beams. 

Fig.  22  is  only  manufactured  by  the  Phoenix  Iron  Works, 
of  Phcenixville,  Pa. ;  Fig.  26  by  Carnegie,  Phipps  &  Co.,  of  Pitts- 
burg,  Pa. 

3.  The   Advantages  of  Different   Shape   Columns  for 
Connections. — It  is  an  important  question,  and  no  doubt   a 
serious  one,  to  select   the  best   column  which  will   make   the 
strongest    and    stiffest    connections   with    the   wall   and    floor 
girders.     When  there  is  only  one  beam  or  girder  at  the  same 
level  and  on  opposite  sides,  a  satisfactory  detail  can  be  made 
for  almost  any  of  the  above  sections ;  but  when  arrangements 
of  the  beams  and  girders  are  irregular,  both  as  to  position  and 
to  height,  those  columns  which   present  the  plainest  and  least 
irregular  surfaces  are  the  ones  which  should  be  selected.     By 
glancing  at  the  details  of  column  connections  and  the  various 
examples,  the    force    of   the  above  remarks  -will  become  evi- 
dent. 


26  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Z-bar  and  plate  columns,  as  Figs.  14  to  21,  are  the  best  — 
depending,  of  course,  upon  the  size  of  columns  and  size  of 
girders  forming  the  connection. 

The  Phoenix  columns  presented  very  many  difficulties  in 
their  early  use  ;  but  those  points  seem  to  have  been  remedied, 
so  that  the  form  of  connections  are  very  much  improved. 

By  means  of  cross-pintle  connections,  as  explained  further 
under  column  connections,  it  is  possible  to  make  a  continuous 
column  from  the  basement  to  the  roof,  in  which  the  joints  are 
stronger  laterally  than  the  body  of  the  column,  and  the  con- 
nections are  practically  25$  less  in  weight  than  the  usual  form 
of  plate  and  brackets. 

The  New  York  Building  Law  Relating  to  the  Strength 
of  Columns.  —  "The  strength  of  all  columns  and  posts  shall 
be  computed  according  to  Gordon's  formula,*  and  the  crush- 
ing-weights in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  section,  for  the  fol- 
lowing-named materials  shall  be  taken  as  coefficients  in  said 
formula,  viz.  —  Cast  iron,  80,000  ;  wrought  or  rolled  iron,  40,000  ; 
rolled  steel,  40,000.  The  factors  of  safety  shall  be  as  I  to  4  for 
all  posts,  columns,  and  other  vertical  supports  when  of  wrought 
iron  or  rolled  steel. 

*  Gordon's  formula  for  the  ultimate  strength  of  columns: 

Fixed  ends.      —  — 
A 

A  —  area,  d  =  least  side  in  inches,  /  =  length  in  feet,  P  =  load,  S  =  total  com- 
pression; unit  stress,  80,000  Ibs.  for  cast-iron,  40,000  for  rolled-iron  or  steel. 

K—  ff£ff  for  cast-iron;        K  —  -^^  wrought-iron  or  steel. 


The  quantity  K  cannot  be  determined  theoretically;  its  value  varies  with  the 
form  of  cross-section  as  well  as  with  the  kind  of  material  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  ends  of  the  columns. 

The  values  of  S  are  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  while  those  of  K  are  in  ab- 
stract numbers. 


COLUMNS.  27 

All  cast-iron,  wrought  iron,  or  rolled  steel  columns  shall  be 
made  true  and  smooth  at  both  ends,  and  shall  rest  on  iron  or 
steel  bed-plates,  and  have  iron  or  steel  cap-plates,  which  shall 
also  be  made  true. 

In  all  buildings  hereafter  erected  or  altered,  where  any  iron 
or  steel  column  or  columns  are  used  to  support  a  wall  .or  part 
thereof,  excepting  a  wall  fronting  on  a  street,  and  columns  lo- 
cated below  the  level  of  the  sidewalk  which  are  used  to  support 
exterior  walls  or  arches  over  vaults,  the  said  column  or  columns 
:snall  be  constructed  double — that  is,  an  outer  and  inner  column. 
The  inner  column  alone  to  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  sustain 
safely  the  weight  to  be  imposed  thereon,  or  such  other  iron  or 
steel  columns  of  sufficient  strength  and  so  constructed  as  to 
secure  resistance  to  fire,  may  be  used  as  may  be  approved  by 
the  superintendent  of  buildings. 

Cast-iron  posts  or  columns  which  are  to  be  used  for  the  sup- 
port of  wooden  or  iron  girders  or  brick  walls,  not  cast  with 
one  open  side  or  back,  before  being  set  in  place,  shall  have  a 
f-inch  hole  drilled  in  the  shaft  of  each  post  or  column  by  the 
manufacturer  or  contractor  furnishing  the  same,  to  exhibit  the 
thickness  of  the  castings  ;  and  any  other  similar-sized  hole  or 
holes  the  superintendent  of  buildings  or  his  duly  authorized 
representatives  may  require  shall  be  drilled  in  the  said  posts  or 
columns  by  the  said  manufacturer  or  contractor  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. 

Iron  posts  or  columns  cast  with  one  or  more  open  sides  and 
backs  shall  have  solid  iron  plates  on  top  of  each,  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  smoke  or  fire  through  them  from  one  story  to  an- 
other, excepting  where  pierced  for  the  passage  of  pipes. 

No  cast-iron  post  or  column  shall  be  used  in  any  building  of 
a  less  average  thickness  of  shaft  than  f  of  an  inch  ;  nor  shall  it 
have  an  unsupported  length  of  more  than  20  times  its  least 
Jateral  dimensions  or  diameter. 

No  wrought-iron  or  rolled-steel  column  shall  have  an  unsup- 


28  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

ported  length  of  more  than  30  times  its  least  lateral  dimensions 
or  diameter  ;  nor  shall  its  metal  be  less  than  \  of  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

All  cast-iron,  wrought-iron,  and  steel  columns  shall  have  their 
bearings  faced  smooth  and  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
column,  and  when  one  column  rests  upon  another  column  they 
shall  be  securely  bolted  together. 

Strength  of  Cast-iron  Columns. — We  owe  our  knowledge 
of  the  strength  of  cast-iron  columns  chiefly  to  the  experiments 
of  Mr.  Eaton  Hodgkinson,  in  the  year  1840.  These  were  very 
numerous  and  to  a  certain  degree  comprehensive,  embracing 
over  two  hundred  examples. 

As  deduced  from  these  experiments  it  was  found  that  where 
cylindrical  cast-iron  columns  were  shorter  than  thirty  external 
diameters,  the  weight  required  to  break  them  by  bending  is  so- 
great  that  the  crushing  force  becomes  sensible,  and  the  column 
yields  to  the  combined  effect  of  the  forces.  But  in  a  long  col- 
umn (where  the  length  exceeds  thirty,  external  diameters), 
although  the  pressure  contributes  to  break  it  by  crushing  as 
well  as  by  flexure  or  bending,  yet  the  column  yields  from 
bending  with  a  weight  which  is  insufficient  to  sensibly  affect  it 
by  crushing  alone.  It  was  found  that  when  the  pressure  on 
the  column  exceeded  one  fourth  of  the  breaking  weight,  a 
change  or  derangement  of  the  metal  took  place.  Therefore- 
one  fiftJi  the  crushing  weight  is  as  great  a  pressure  as  can  be  put 
upon  cast-iron  columns  without  having  their  ultimate  strength 
decreased  by  incipient  crushing ;  provided  the  thickness  of 
metal  in  column  is  uniform,  with  turned  ends,  secured  top  and 
bottom  and  bolted  through  flanges. 

If  the  column  is  secured  by  an  uncertain  method,  It  is  safer 
to  use  one  sixth  the  crushing  weight. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  it  will  not  do  to  take  the  table 
on  page  30  as  a  guide,  unless  the  columns  are  of  uniform  thick- 
ness throughout,  of  good  metal,  with  cores  made  in  one  piece, 


COLUMNS.  29. 

castings  reasonably  perfect  and  straight,  the  ends  turned  off 
true  in  a  lath  in  planes  at  right  angles  with  their  axis,  and  set 
up  perpendicularly  in  the  building. 

Mr.  Hodgkinson,  in  his  experiments,  found  that  columns, 
with  rounded  ends  can  sustain  only  about  one  third  the  weight 
of  those  with  flat  ends  carefully  fitted,  with  the  ends  at  right, 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  column.  In  the  ordinary  mode  of 
chipping  off  (cutting  with  a  chisel)  the  ends  of  a  column  in  an 
unfinished  state,  the  inequalities  of  the  bearing  surfaces  cause 
the  weight  to  rest  on  a  few  points  on  the  ends,  and  it  is  almost 
impossible  that  the  ends  shall  be  at  right  angles  with  the  axis. 
The  safe  weight  a  column  can  sustain  in  such  cases  is  consid- 
ered to  be  about  two  thirds  of  one  turned  true. 

A  few  experiments  were  also  made  on  columns  with  rounded 
ends,  and  other  forms  than  cylindrical.  Square  columns  had 
an  average  breaking  weight  about  58  per  cent  greater  than 
cylindrical  columns  of  diameters  equal  to  the  sides  of  the- 
squares.  A  pillar  of  the  section  ",90.75  inches  long,  3  inches 
across,  and  the  ribs  0.48  inch  thick,  had  a  breaking  weight  63 
per  cent  greater  than  the  computed  breaking  weight  of  a  solid 
cylindrical  column  of  the  same' weight  and  length.  A  hollow 
cylindrical  column  of  the  same  weight  and  length,  and  of  an 
external  diameter  equal  to  the  width  of  the  ~y,  has  a  computed 
breaking  weight  about  double  that  found  by  experiment  for 
the  form— J-. 

A  pillar  of  the  section  H,  3  inches  in  height  and  2.5  inches, 
in  width,  of  the  same  length  and  nearly  the  same  sectional 
area  as  the  preceding,  had  a  breaking  weight  about  2.6  times 
the  computed  breaking  weight  of  a  solid  cylindrical  pillar  of 
the  same  weight  and  length. 

A  hollow  pillar,  3  inches  in  external  diameter  and  of  the 
same  weight  and  length,  has  a  computed  breaking  weight 
about  19  per  cent  greater  than  was  found  by  experiment  for 
the  H-section.  The  H-section  being  built  solidly  in  the  brick 


.30  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Avork,  the  result  would  no  doubt  be  quite  different  from  Mr. 
Hodgkinson's  tests.  The  results  would  be  nearly  those  of  the 
^square  and  circular  columns. 

Table  Giving  the  Strength  of  Hollow  Cast  Columns.— 
In  computing  the  weight  to  be  sustained  by  a  column,  it  is 
not  sufficient  to  consider  only  the  weight  appropriate  to  that 
particular  use  for  which  it  is  intended  ;  but  the  weight  should 
be  estimated  for  any  use  to  which  the  building  may  be  applied, 
with  full  allowance  for  floors  and  the  weights  to  be  placed 
thereon.  It  is  not  safe  to  take  the  average  weight  sustained 
on  each  column,  as  some  columns  will  have  more  or  less  on 
them  than  the  average,  and  will  be  loaded  more  on  one  side 
than  the  other ;  besides,  -they  are  subject  to  concussions  from 
bodies  falling  on  a  floor  above,  or  may  receive  a  lateral  blow 
from  goods  falling  against  them  in  transmission. 

Great  allowance  should  also  be  made  for  columns  that  are 
subject  to  vibrations  caused  by  machinery,  etc. 

The  following  table  gives  the  ultimate  strength  of  round 
-and  square  cast-iron  columns,  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of 

sectional  area.  The  numbers  in  column  -j  =  the  length  di- 
vided by  the  least  diameter  each  taken  in  inches. 


/ 
~d 

Round. 

Square. 

/ 
d 

Round. 

Square. 

5 

75.300 

76,200 

.7 

46,444 

50,700 

6 

73,400 

74,630 

18 

44,200 

48,540 

7 

71,270 

72,860 

19 

42,100 

46,460  . 

8 

68,970 

70,920 

20 

40,000 

44,450 

9 

66,530 

68,850 

21 

38,100 

42,510 

10 

64,000 

66,670 

22 

36,  200 

40,650 

ir 

61,420 

64,410 

23 

34,460 

38,8/0 

12 

58,820 

62,110 

24 

32,790 

37,175 

13 

56,240 

59,890 

25 

31,220 

35<56o 

14 

53,86o 

57,470 

26 

29,740 

34,010 

15 

51,200 

55,170 

27 

28,340 

32,550 

16 

48,780 

52,910 

28 

27,030 

31,150 

COLUMNS.  31 

Factors  of  Safety  for  Cast-iron  Columns. 

(a)  If  column  is  accurately  turned  to  a  true  plane  and  its- 
bearing  surfaces  are  perfectly  true,  take  one  fifth  of  ultimate 
strength. 

(b)  If  column  has  turned  ends  and  is  set  with  the  usual  care, 
as  in  ordinary  buildings,  take  one  sixth  of  ultimate  strength. 

(c)  If   the  ordinary  mode  of   chipping  off  ends  as  with  a 
chisel  is  employed,  take  one  eighth  of  ultimate  strength. 

EXAMPLE  I.  What  safe  load  will  a  12-inch-diameter  column 
I  inch  thick,  15  feet  long,  support  with  a  safety  factor  of  5,  or 
one  fifth  the  ultimate  strength  ? 

/_  i8o_ 

=  =  = 


Opposite  this  number  for  round  columns  is  51,200  pounds,  and: 
dividing  this  by  5  we  get  10,240  pounds,  safe  load  per  square; 
inch  of  sectional  area. 


A  12"  dia.  area  =  113.10  sq.  in. 


34.56  =  area  of  a  12"  dia.  column  i"  thick. 

Then  34.56  inches  X  10.240  —  353,894  pounds  or  177  tons, 
total  safe  load  the  column  will  support. 

EXAMPLE  2.  What  safe  load  will  a  lo-inch  square  column 
I  inch  thick,  10  feet  long,  support  with  a  safety  factor  of  6,  or 
one  sixth  the  ultimate  strength  ? 


120 


Opposite  this   number  for  square  columns  is  62,110,  which 


32  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

•divided  by  6  gives  10,352  pounds,  safe  load  per  square  inch  of 
sectional  area. 

Area  of  column  —  36  inches  X  10,352  =  372,672  pounds  or 
1 86  tons,  the  total  safe  load  the  column  will  support. 

Strength  of  Wrought -iron  and  Steel  Columns. — 
Wrought-iron  and  steel  columns  fail  either  by  deflecting 
bodily  out  of  a  straight  line,  or  by  the  buckling  of  the  metal 
between  rivets  or  other  points  of  support. 

Both  actions  may  take  place  at  the  same  time,  but  if  the 
latter  occurs  alone  it  may  be  an  indication  that  the  rivet 
spacing  or  the  thickness  of  the  metal  is  insufficient. 

Until  a  few  years  ago  we  have  had  no  experimental 
knowledge  on  this  subject  beyond  the  experiments  of  Hodg- 
kinson,  which  have  furnished  the  constants  for  Hodgkinson's 
and  also  for  Gordon's  formula.  . 

Then  we  had  Euler's  formula,  where  it  is  assumed  that  for 
any  given  material  there  is  a  certain  definite  ratio  of  length  to 
diameter  below  which  a  column  will  give  away  by  direct 
-crushing,  while  one  whose  ratio  of  length  to  diameter  is 
greater  will  give  way  wholly  by  transverse  strain. 

Hodgkinson's  empirical  formulae  wiere  based  upon  his  ex- 
periments upon  small  columns  of  a  variety  of  ratios  of  length 
to  diameter. 

Then  Gordon's  formula,  where  it  is  assumed  that  all 
columns  give  way  by  a  combination  of  crushing  and  bending. 

The  formula  which  seems  to  most  satisfactorily  represent 
the  result  of  experiments  is  that  of  Gordon,  or,  as  it  is  some- 
times referred  to,  "  Gordon's  formula  modified  by  Rankine  ;" 
but  the  best  usage  gives  to  it  the  name  of  Rankine's  formula. 
The  disagreement  of  the  formulae  already  referred  to  has  led  to 
the  proposal  of  a  number  of  similar  formulae,  each  having  its 
constants  determined  to  suit  certain  definite  set  of  tests,  and 
all  these  thus  proposed  must  be  classed  as  empirical  formulae, 
and  applied  within  the  cases  experimented  upon. 


COL  UMNS. 


33 


In  1 88 1,  Mr.  Clark,  of  the  firm  of  Clark,  Reeves  &  Co., 
presented  to  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  a  report 
of  a  number  of  tests  on  full-sized  Phoenix  columns,  made  for 
them  at  the  Watertown  Arsenal,  together  with  a  comparison 
of  the  actual  breaking  weights  with  those  which  would  have 
been  obtained  by  using  the  common  form  of  Gordon's  formula 
for  wrought  iron  : 

P  _         36000 
A~~       ~l^~' 


where  P  =  breaking  weight  in  pounds,  A  =  area  of  section  in 
, -square  inches,  /=  length  in  inches,  r  =  least  radius  of  gyra- 
tion in  inches.     The  table  is  as  follows : 


No.  of  | 
Experiment. 

Length  of 
Column.  Ft. 

S3 

.2  & 

ii 
i\ 

3' 

A 

.Sf 

'5 

rt 

£ 
<d 

"rt*"1 

c  cr 
.2crt 

o 

V 
C/l 

Total  Com- 
pression 
under  Loads. 

Elastic  Limit. 

Ultimate 
Strength. 

T6tal 
Ultimate 
Strength, 
in  Ibs.,  by 
Gordon's 
Formula. 

Lbs. 
200,000. 

Lbs. 

300,000. 

Total 
Ibs. 

Lbs. 
1   per 
sq.  in. 

Total 
Ibs. 

Lbs. 
per 
sq.  in. 

I 
2 

3 
4 

6 

8 

9 
10 
ii 

12 
13 
14 
15 

16 

17 
18 

28 
28 
25 
25 
22 
22 

191 

19  i 

16) 
i6f 

13 
13  f 

10  ) 
IO  ) 

7  I 
7  ) 
4 
4 

42 
42 

371 
371 
33 
33 

28* 

24 

19* 
15 

ioi 

6 
6 

1,142 

1,153 
1,034 
1,023 
Q20 

'(773' 
1  777 
650 
650 
536 
53i 
415 
418 

j  291 
(284 
164 
164* 

I2.O62 

12.181 

12.233 
I2.IOO 

12.371 
12.311 
12.023 
12.087 
I2.OOO 
I2.OOO 
12.185 
12.009 
12.248 

12-339 
12.265 
11.962 

12.081 
12.119 

0.190 
0.186 

0.168 
0.160 
o.  152 

0.139 

0.120 

o.  116 
0.092 
0.091 

424,000 
416,000 
431,500 
424,000 
440,000 
423,000 
425,200 
446,000 
439,000 
439,000 
449,000 
449,000 
446,  800 
449,100 
468,000 
5i7,ooo 
598,000 
621,000 

35,150 
34,150 
35,270 
35,040 
35,570 
34,36p 
35,365 
36,900 
36,580 
36,580 
36..S57 
37,200 
36,480 
36,397 
38,157 
43,300 
49,500 
51,240 

330,146 

333,459 
352,013 
348,119 
372,837 
37r,043 
377,955 
380,197 
391,701 
391,701 
410,660 
406,886 
423,886 

427,047 
433.021 

469,324 
432,132 
433,507 

0.255 

0.264 

0.243 

0.236 
o.  198 
0.213 

342,000 

27,960 

354,000 

29,290 

0.^142 

342,OOO 

28,890 

O.IIO 

0.109 

330,000 
35O,OOO 
360,000 
354,ooo 

. 
26,940 
28,360 
29>350 
29,590 

0.054 

0.031 
0.025 

0.042 

340,000 

28,050 

Other  tests  made  at  the  Watertown  Arsenal  will  next  be 
given. 


34 


SKELETON   CONSTRU ' CTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


WROUGHT-IRON   COLUMNS. 

LATTICED  COLUMN— CHANNEL  BARS  SPACED  8"  APART. 


a 
M 

"o 

a 

55 

Length. 

Sectional 
Area. 

Lattice 
Spacing. 

Ultimate 
Strength. 

Manner  of  Failure. 

Actual. 

Per 
sq.  in. 

in. 

ft.    in. 

sq.  in. 

in. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Flat  ends 

6 

IO     o 

4.760 

18 

174,800 

36,720 

Channels  buckled. 

"        " 

6 

IO     o 

4.670 

18 

165,000 

35,330 

«               " 

Pin  ends 

6 

12      0 

4.600 

18 

159,800 

34,740 

Horizontal  deflection. 

6 

15      0 

4.480 

18 

151,500 

33,820 

6 

17     6 

4.660 

18 

152,600 

32,750 

6 

20     6 

4.660 

18 

136,000 

29,180 

6 

22      6 

4-570 

18 

139,800 

30,590 

6 

25     o 

4.710 

18 

I1O,OOO 

23,350 

6  [27     6 

4.690 

18 

102,500 

21,850 

6 

30    o 

4.700 

18 

69,  3  jo 

14,740 

8 

13     4 

7.520 

18 

261,800 

34,810 

Defl.  upward;  ch.  bars  buckled. 

8 

16     8 

7.480 

18 

254,100 

33,970 

"     horizon.       " 

8 

20    o 

7-550 

18 

246,200 

32,610 

«           «             a              « 

8 

23     4 

7.990 

18 

257,500 

32,230 

«           (t 

8 

26     8 

7.780 

18 

243,900 

31,350 

.(           (i 

8 

30    o 

7.810 

18 

194,100 

24,850 

(i           tt 

IO 

12      6 

9.680 

22 

34-1,120 

35,550 

Channel  bars  buckled. 

IO 

16     8 

9-550 

22     323,200 

33,840 

"          "           " 

10 

20  10 

9.740 

22 

330,000 

33,880 

n          ii           <( 

IO 

25     o 

10.040 

22 

342,700 

34.130 

«                          ((                           K 

IO 

29      2 

9.300 

22 

299,300 

32,180 

Deflection  horizontally. 

12 

20      0 

11.980 

22 

411,600 

34,360 

Channel  bars  buckled. 

12 

25     o 

12.144 

22 

400,000 

32,940 

((          «i            « 

12 

25     o 

II  .910 

22 

407,800 

34,240 

«           "           " 

12 

30    o 

12.180 

22 

385,000 

31,610 

«          i  <           a 

12 

30    o 

12.540 

22 

393,ooo 

31,340 

Deflection  horizontally. 

TESTS   OF   Z-BAR    COLUMNS. 

Some  tests  were  made  on  iron  Z-bar  column  by  C.  L. 
Strobel,  C.E.,  and  reported  in  the  Trans.  Am.  Soc.,  C.E. 
Paper,  April,  1888.  These  tests  were  fifteen  full-sized  speci- 
mens, in  which  the  central  web-plates  were  replaced  by  lattice 
bars.  The  results  for  lengths  ranging  from  64  to  88  radii  showed 
an  average  ultimate  resistance  per  square  inch  of  35,650  Ibs. 

The  tabulated  values  are  based  upon  the  formula, 

46,000  —  125-, 

for  lengths  exceeding  90  radii  and  35,000  for  lengths  equal  to 
or  less  than  90  radii. 


COL  UMNS. 


35 


Section  of  column  :  4  Z-bars,  2^"  X  3''  X  2i"— (latticed). 
Radius  of  gyration  (latticed  bars  not  considered)  =  2.05". 


Ultimate 

Ultimate 

Length  of 
Column. 

Sectional  Area. 
Square  Inches. 

Strength  by 
Actual  Tests. 
Lbs.  per 
Square  Inch. 

Ratio  of  Length 
to  Least  Radius 
of  Gyration. 

Strength  by 
Formula 

46,000  —  125-. 

15  W 

9.480 

34,600 

88 

35,000 

i5'-o" 

9.280 

36,600 

88 

35,ooo 

19-01" 

9.241 

33,800 

112 

32,200 

ig'-o|" 

10.104 

33,700 

112 

32,200 

22'-0" 

9.286 

30,700 

129 

29,900 

22'-o" 

9.286 

29,500 

I29 

29,900 

22'-o" 

9.286 

'  30,  700 

I29 

29,000 

2S'-0" 

9.156 

28,100 

146 

27,750 

25'-o" 

9-456 

28,000 

I46 

27,750 

25'-o" 

9.516 

28,400 

146 

27,750 

28'-o" 

9-375 

27,700 

I64 

25,500 

28-0" 

9-643 

28,000 

I64 

25,500 

28'-o' 

9-375 

27,600 

I64 

25,500 

WROUGHT-IRON    BOX    COLUMNS   WITH    FLAT    ENDS. 


Ultimate  Strength 

Style  of  Column. 

Total 
Length. 

Sec- 
tional 
Area. 

Manner  ol 
Failure. 

Total 

Pounds 

Lbs. 

per  Sq. 

Inch. 

Two  6"  channels  5.5  inches  apart, 

flanges   turned   out  with  two  $- 

inch  cover-plates  

10    7.9 

12.08 

383,200 

31,722 

Plates  buckeled  be- 

do.                            do. 

10    7.9 

ii  .11 

372,900 

33-564 

tween  the  rivets. 

Two  8"  channels  7.6  inches  apart, 

flanges  turned   out  with  two  T5B- 

inch  cover-plates  

13  ii.  8 

17.01 

594,5oo 

34-95° 

do. 

do.                             do. 
Four  plates   connected    with   four 

13  u.  8 

17.80 

633,600 

35,595 

Triple  flexure. 

angles   forming  a   box   7"  x  7^" 

inside  

Plates  and  angles  all  T5B"  thick  

13  IT.  9 

13  ii  .6 

15-74 

15.84 

517,000 
555,200 

32,846 
35-050 

Buckling  plates. 
Buckling  places. 

do.                               do. 

20     7  .  63 

15.68 

Si?,  5°° 

33,003 

Deflecting  upward. 

do.                              do. 

20     7  .  80 

I5-56 

536,900 

34,505 

Buckling  plates. 

Single  web   columns  with  3J-inch 

pin-ends. 

One  TBB"  web    8"  wide    with   four 

angles,  and  8"  channels  used  in 

place    of    cover-plates,     flanges 

Deflecting  upward 

outward                          

13     4 

15-34 

47,500 

3°,965 

in  plane  of  pin. 

Strength  of  Steel  Columns. — Experiments  thus  far  upon 
steel  struts  indicate  that  for  lengths  up  to  90  radii  of  gyration 
their  ultimate  strength  is  about  20  per  cent,  higher  than  for 
wrought-iron.  Beyond  this  point  the  excess  of  strength  dimin- 
ishes until  it  becomes  zero  at  about  200  radii.  After  passing 
this  limit  the  compression  resistance  of  steel  and  wrought-iron. 
seems  to  become  practically  equal. 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


ULTIMATE  STRENGTH   OF  WROUGHT-IRON   COLUMNS. 

40000 


Square  ends.     By  formula 


' 


/      ,,3  , 


/  =  length  in  feet,  r  =  least  radius  of  gyration  in  inches. 
To  be  used  for  columns  not  cylindrical.     For  safe  load  take 
the  ultimate. 


I 

f 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in  Ibs. 
per 
sq.  in. 

/ 
r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in  Ibs. 
per 
sq.  in. 

/ 
r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in  Ibs. 
per 
sq.  in. 

/ 
r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in  Ibs. 
per 
sq.  in. 

/ 
r 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in  Ibs. 
per 
sq.  in. 

3-o 

38,610 

6.0 

34,970 

9.0 

30,210 

12.0 

25,380 

15-5 

20,290 

3-2 

38,430 

6.2 

34,670 

9-2 

29,880 

12.2 

25,070 

15-8 

2O,02O 

3.4 

38,230 

6.4 

34,370 

9.4 

29.550 

12.4 

24,770 

16.0 

19,760 

3-6 

38,030 

6.6 

34,060 

9.6 

29,230 

12.6 

24,470 

16.2 

19,510 

3-8 

37,820 

6.8 

33,750 

9.8 

28,900 

12.8 

24,170 

16.5 

19,150 

4.0 

37,590 

7-0 

33,440 

IO.O 

28,570 

13.0 

23,870 

16.8 

18,790 

4.2 

37,36o 

7-2 

33,130 

10.2 

28,250 

13.2 

23,570 

17.0 

18,550 

4.4 

37,120 

7-4 

32,810 

10.4 

27,920 

13.5 

23,140 

17.2 

18,320 

4.6 

36,870 

7.6 

32,490 

10.6 

27,600 

13.8 

22,700 

i'7-5 

17,980 

4.8 

36,620 

7.8 

32,170 

10.8 

27,270 

14.0 

22,420 

17.8 

17,640 

5-o 

36,360 

8.0 

31,850 

ii  .0 

26,950 

14.2 

22,150 

18.0 

17,420 

5-2 

36,090 

8.2 

31,520 

xi.  a 

26,640 

14.5 

21,740 

18.2 

17.200 

5-4 

35,820 

8.4 

31,19° 

ii.  4 

26,320 

14.8 

31,320 

18.5 

16,880 

5-6 

35,540 

8.6 

30,870 

ii.  6 

26,000 

15.0 

21,050 

18.8 

16,570 

5.8 

35,26o 

8.8 

30,540 

n.  8 

25,690 

15.2 

20,790 

19.0 

16,370 

Radius  of  Gyration. — In  order  to  find  the  strength  of  long  columns  we  need 
to  know  r2,  or  the  square  of  the  radius  of  gyration. 

We  have,  in  general, 


to  the  axis  through  its  own  centre  of  gravity  parallel  to  its  breadth,  is 


~A   '       OI"      r  ~  V    ~A~* 

where  r  is  the  radius  of  gyration,  /  is 
the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  cross-sec- 
tion to  the  required  axis,  and  A  is  the 
area  of  the  cross-section. 

The  moment  of  inertia  of  such  built- 
up  sections,  as  in  Fig.  30,  with  reference 

or 


N.B. — If  — '  =  f  of  an  inch,  b,  — 


12 

inches. 


COLUMNS. 

ELEMENTS   OF  Z-BAR   COLUMNS. 
X 


/  =  Moment  of  inertia. 
A  =  Area. 


=  Radius  of  gyration. 


THE  THICKNESS  OF  WEB  PLATE  AND  Z-BAR  is  THE  SAME. 


7"  Web  Plate.     7^"  Face  to  Face. 

7i"  Web  Plate.    7J"  Face  to  Face. 

Size  of  Z-Bar 
in  Inches. 

Area 
of  4  Z- 

Axis  XX. 

Axis  YY. 

Area 
of  4  Z- 

Axis  XX. 

Axis  YY. 

Bars 

Bars 

and  i 

and  i 

Plate. 

I. 

R*. 

I. 

R*. 

Plate 

I. 

*». 

I. 

*•. 

3J    x  6  ^  x  ^  x  f^ 

20.99 
24.62 

264.18 
306.41 

12.59 
12.45 

287.91 
346-95 

13-72 
14  09 

21.17 
24.84 

299-34 
347-30 

14.14 
13.98 

287.91 
346-95 

13-60 
'3-97 

3!    x  6J-   x  3$   x  i- 

28.26 

347-Si 

12.31 

409.27 

14.48 

28.51 

392-86 

I3-78 

409.28 

14-36 

3£    x  6     x  3^   x  T9B 

30.66 

365.24 

ii  .91 

426.30 

13.90 

30-94 

415-23 

13.42 

426.31 

13-78 

3i95  x  6  A  x  31*5  x  f 

34-22 

403.02 

11.78 

489-32 

14-30 

34-53 

458-45 

13.28 

489-33 

14.17 

34    x6i    x3|    xH 

37-8i 

440.25 

11.64 

555-79 

14.70 

38.16 

500.93 

13  13 

455-So 

H-57 

3!    x  6      x  3^    x  £ 

39  .  8  1 

.448.24 

11.26 

562.41 

M  13 

40.19 

5lr-45 

!2-73 

562  42 

3  is  x  61^  x  3T9B  x  £| 

43-21 

481.06 

11.13 

628.31 

14-54 

43.61 

549.08 

12.59 

628.33 

14.41 

46.77 

5H-73 

11.00 

699.07 

14-95 

47-20 

587-80 

12.45 

699.10 

14.81 

f>\"  Web  Plate.    6|"  Face  to  Face. 

7"  Web  Plate.     i\"  Face  to  Face. 

Si's  x  5      x  3-^5  x  T5B 

J5  47 

169.65 

10.  97 

I47-39 

9-53 

15  63 

193.91     12.41 

M7-39 

9-43 

3±    x  5ts  x  3i    x  f 
3i5B  x  si    x  3T5B  x  T7B 

18.64 
21.84 

202  .  04 
233-93 

10.84 
10.71 

183.47 
223.00 

9  84 

10.21 

18.83 

22  .06 

231  .00 

267.61 

12.27 

12.  13 

183.47 
223.00 

9-74 

10.  1  1 

332  x  5        x  3/j  X  $ 

24.17 

249.97 

10  34 

234-39 

9.70 

24.42 

287.67 

11.78 

234-39 

9.60 

3a92  x  STB  x  333  x  T9B 

27.30 
30.46 

279-93 
308.80 

10.25 
10.  14 

273-72 
3I5-55 

IO.O3 
10.36 

27.58 
30.78 

321.22 
354-42 

H.65 
11.52 

273.72 
3I5-56 

9-93 
10.25 

3±    x  5      x  3±    x  }B 

32-31 

3l6-97 

9.81 

320.08 

9.91 

32.65 

364  83 

11.17 

320.09 

9.80 

3T5s  x  STB  x  3i5B  x  i 

35  44 

343.48 

9.69 

362  93 

IO.24 

35-81 

395-52 

II  .04 

362.95 

10.14 

6"  Web  Plate.     6±"  Face  to  Face. 

6*"  Web  Plate.    6J"  Face  to  Face. 

25    x  4     x2£   x} 

10.78 

101.90 

9-45 

65.72 

6.10 

10.91 

117.62 

10.78 

65.72 

6.02 

J3-52 

126.20 

9-34 

85.86 

6-35 

13.67 

I45-72 

10.66 

85.86 

6.28 

3      x  4$    x  3      x  f 

16.25 

149.91 

9-23 

107.47 

6.61 

16.44 

173.18 

10.53 

107.47 

6-54 

2§}  X  4         X  2§5  X  T7g 

18.47 

166.01 

8-99 

6.26 

18.68 

192.14 

10.29 

6.  19 

33*5  X  4^5  X  3^2  X  $ 

21.24 

188.60 

8.88 

I38-44 

6.52 

21.49 

218.59 

10.  16 

138-45 

6-44 

3^X4^     X3&X& 

24.02 

210.67 

8-77 

163.09 

6.79 

24.30 

244.05 

10.04 

163.10 

6.  7I 

3T*s  x  4      x  3^  x  4 

25-87 

221.21 

8-55 

166.90 

6-45 

26.18 

256.76 

9-83 

166.91 

6-39 

28.69 

242.  12 

8-44 

192.70 

6  72 

29.03 

281.15 

9.69 

192.70 

6.64 

3T3B  x  4i    x  3T3B  x  f 

S^SO 

262.65 

8.32 

220.68 

7.01 

31-88 

305.12 

9-57 

220.70 

6.92 

5^"  Web  Plate.     sJ"  Face  to  Face. 

6"  Web  Plate.    6J"  Face  to  Face. 

24     X  3        X24     X£ 

9.14 

72-59 

7-94 

3T-74 

3-47 

9.26 

84.82 

9.  16 

31  74 

3-43 

2TB  X  3TB  X  2  JB  X  T5B 

11.48 

90.17 

7-85 

42.14 

3-67 

11.64 

105.31 

9-05 

42-15 

3.62 

2  J      X  3|-      X  2f      X  f 

13.82 

107.05 

7  75 

53-40 

3-86 

14  01 

125.14 

8-93 

53-  41 

3-8i 

23I  X  3l'B  X  23|  X  f  ' 

iS-53 
17-75 

115.58 
130.45 

7-44 
7-35 

55-61 
67.20 

3.58 

3-79 

15-75 
18.00 

135-63 
I53-I4 

8.61 
8.51 

55-6i 
67.20 

3-53 
3-73 

38  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

ELEMENTS   OF  Z-BAR   COLUMNS. 


Moment  of  inertia. 


Y     T  —  Radius  of  gyration. 


THE  THICKNESS  OF  WEB  PLATE  AND  Z-BAR  is  THE  SAME. 


8"  Web  Plate.     8J"  Face  to  Face. 

8J"  Web  Plate.     8£"  Face  to  Face. 

Size  of  Z-Bar 
in  Inches. 

Area 
of  4  Z 

Axis  XX. 

Axis  YY. 

Area 
of  4Z- 

Axis  XX. 

Axis  YY. 

Bars 

Bars 

and  i 

and  i 

Plate. 

I. 

R*. 

I. 

Ri. 

Plate 

I. 

*•. 

I. 

x». 

3*g  x  6  ^  x  3i   x  | 

21.36 

25.06 

337-17 
391-37 

15-78 
15.62 

287.92 
346-96 

13-48 
13.85 

21-55 
25.28 

377-65 
438  55 

17-35 

287.92 
346.96 

13-36 
13-73 

^fB  x  6i-S  x  ^4    x  A 

28.76 

444-57 

15-46 

409  .  28 

14.23 

29.01 

498.35 

17.18 

4°9  29 

14.11 

3!    x  6      x  3^    x  T\ 

31-22 

469.16 

15-03 

426.32 

13-65 

31  5° 

527-03 

J6-73 

420.33 

13  53. 

3&x6&x3&xA 

34.84 

518.19 

14.88 

489-34 

14-05 

35-15 

582.27 

16.65 

489-35 

13.92 

f   x6£   X-A    xiB 

38.50 

566.43 

14-72 

555-82 

14-44 

38.  84 

636.74 

i6-39 

555-8.3 

14-31 

3i    x6      x3£    xf 

40  56 

579.76 

14.29 

562.44 

13-87 

40.94 

653.06 

15-95 

562.46 

13-74 

44.02 

622.59 

14-14 

628.36 

14-27 

44-43 

701  .62 

15-79 

628.38 

14-14 

3*    x6i    x3i   x* 

47  64 

666.83 

14.00 

699.  13 

14-67 

48.08 

751.66 

15-63 

699-15 

14-54 

1\"  Web  Plate.     7}"  Face  to  Face. 

8"  Web  Plate.    8±"  Face  to  Face. 

3    X             X       3    X    B 

15-78 

220.  13 

13-95 

147-39      9-35 

15-94 

248.29 

15-58 

147-39 

9.25 

3i   x  Si's  x  3i    x  f 

19.01 

262.  32 

13.80 

183.47       9.65 

19.20 

296.02 

15-42 

183-48 

9-56 

332  X  5        X3372xl 

22.28 
24.67 

303.96 
327-56 

13-64 
13-28 

223.00 
234  4° 

IO.OI 

9-50 

22.50 
24.92 

343-21 
370.53 

15-25 
14.87 

223.01 
234.40 

9.91 
9.41 

3392  X  5  A  X  335  X  T9B 

27.96 

-365-87 

13-13 

273  73 

9.83 

28.14 

4i4.o8 

14.72 

273-74 

9.73. 

31.09 

403-93 

22.99 

315.57    10  15 

31.40 

457-31 

H-S6 

315-5S 

10.05 

,'  x  _    x  ^i  x  11 

33-00 

416-75 

12.63 

320.10      9.70 

33-  34 

472-79 

14.18 

32O.  12 

9.60 

3T5BX5TBX  3l55xS- 

36.19 

452.01 

12-49 

362.96    10.03 

36-56 

5I3-78 

14-05 

362.98 

9-93 

7"  Web  Plate,     yj"  Face  to  Face. 

1\"  Web  Plate.     7i"  Face  to  Face. 

zf-   x  4      x  2£    x  i 

11.03 

I34-71 

I".  21 

65.72 

5-96 

ii.  16 

153-17 

13-72 

65.72 

5-89 

13-83 

166.97 

12  .07 

85.86 

6.21 

13.98 

189-95 

13-59 

85-86 

6.14 

3      x  4£    x  3      x  f 

16.63 

198-52 

"•94 

107.47 

6  46 

16.  81 

225-94 

13-44 

107.47 

6-39 

2iix4      X2fixA 

18.90 

220.75 

i   .68 

115.64 

6.12 

19.  12 

251.40 

13-15 

IT5.64 

6.05 

3&  x  4TJB  X  3^2  X  | 

21-74 

250.90 

i    -54 

138-45 

6-37 

21-99 

286.10 

13.01 

138.46 

6.  30 

3n35  x  4£   x  3^5  x  T9B 

24.58 

280.48 

I     .4T 

i63  .  10 

6.64 

24.86 

319-96 

12.87 

l63.II 

6.56 

STB  x  4      x  3l^  x  A 

26.50 

295-54 

1    -15 

166.92 

6.  3o 

26.81 

337-59 

12-59 

166.93 

6.23 

29  37 

323-83 

i    .03 

192  .  7-3 

6  56 

29.72 

370-17 

14-45 

192.74 

6.49 

3T36x4i    x3T3BxJ 

32.25 

10.90 

220.  72 

6.84 

32  .  63 

402.09 

12-32 

220.  73 

6.77 

6|"  Web  Plate.     6|"  Face  to  Face. 

7"  Web  Plate.     7}"  Face  to  Face. 

24     X  3        X  2$     X  £ 

9  39 

98.12 

10-45 

31.74 

3.38 

9-5i 

112.65 

11-85 

31-74 

3-34 

att  x  3TB  x  zH  x  f5B 

1  1  .  79 

121.99 

10.35 

42.15 

n-95 

140.07 

11.71 

42.15 

3-53 

2  J     X  3^     X  2}     X  $• 

14.20 

144.98 

10.21 

53-41 

3-76 

14-39 

166.60 

11.58 

53-41 

3-7i 

2%\  X  3        X  2^5  X  T7B 

15.96 

157-65 

9.88 

55-62 

3-49 

16.18 

181.67 

11.23 

.SS-62 

3-4* 

2§ix3llflX2§ixi 

18.25 

178.09 

9.76 

67.21 

18.50 

205  .  32 

II  .  IO 

67.21 

3-63- 

COLUMNS. 

SAFE  LOADS   IN   TONS   OF  2000  LBS. 
*  STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS,  SQUARE  ENDS. 

Allowed  strains  per  square  inch  for  steel,  safety  factor  4: 
12,000  Ibs.  for  lengths  of  90  radii  or  under. 

17,100-57-  for  lengths  over  90  radii. 

6"   STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  3"  deep  and  i  web  plate  sf"  x  thickness  of  Z-bars. 


39 


t^c     • 

oo  c    • 

N  cod 

me"    • 

OB    • 

<"c  ,A 

M  ""_  00 

«d«f 

vd-  §0 

4-'"1  o^ 

*2,f 

£'jj? 

Length  of 

-!" 

!l  ^  || 

II  ^  II 

"    o   II 

^o  II 

jlqll 

Column 

12     M  "-?• 

15    rr>~^ 

15  \6  o 

in  Feet. 

•g     6>  Q 

qj    "   C 

Z  "  a' 

g  w  t; 

S  'I  Q 

Sllf 

5  ii  a 

S  "  i 

5  Hi 

s  ii  'a 

ajft 

-Sjgf 

«|t 

H2JT 

*|T 

<|t 

12  and  under 

55-9 

70.3 

81.6 

95-8 

'05.7 

119.8 

14 
16 

55-7 
52-3 

70.3 
66.5 

81.6 

76.6 

95  8 
91  3 

'05.7 
99-9 

119.8 
114.8 

18 

48.8 

62.3 

71.7 

85.6 

93-6 

107.8 

20 

45-4 

58.1 

79  9 

87.2 

100.8 

22 
24 

42.0 
38.6 

53-9 
49-7 

56.9 

3:i 

80.9 
74-6 

93-8 

26 

35-2 

45-5 

51-9 

63.0 

68.2 

79-8 

28 

31  •  7 

4T-3 

47-0 

57-3 

61  .9 

72.8 

3° 

28.3 

42.0 

55-5 

65.8 

8"   STEEL   Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  4"  deep  and  i  web  plate  6£"  x  thickness  of  Z-bars. 


roc' 

M     C 

0  G 

•xC 

rxG 

M     C      „• 

N    C    N- 

00   G'      • 

*tc  ^ 

^'d-if 

4  ""•  4 

^ 

^'d-f 

R'S-? 

*'^ 

OO    ^    LO 

.Length  of 

II  ^  II 

ii  ^  || 

»     Mil 

J!*n 

Jl  ?" 

J!«» 

||    ^  |j 

jlfil 

II    Ox  il 

Column 

"rt  "-^ 

13  4-^ 

15  ^--^ 

C^    O^ 

"B  ^"^ 

15  o'— 

in  Feet. 

%  "  c 

'v  w  a" 

w  ".S 

aJ  w  G 

w      •- 

oJ  N  G' 

W  01  G 

5  "^  c 

S  'VI, 

S  ".'1 

Ii! 

HO  «5  T" 

s  n'f 

Ii! 

S^f1 

l|! 

18  and  I 
under   j 

67-5 

84.8 

102.4 

114.2 

131.2 

148.5 

J57-5 

174.3 

191.2 

20 

65.0 

82.5 

100.5 

110.5 

128.2 

146.4 

153-3 

171.3 

189.6 

22 

61  .9 

78.7 

95-9 

105-3 

122    4 

139.9 

146.2 

l63-5 

181.3 

24 

58.8 

74-8 

9i-3 

1OO.  I 

Il6.5 

!33-4 

139.  i 

155.8 

173.0 

26 

55-7 

71.0 

86.8 

04.8 

no.  6 

126.9 

132.0 

148.1 

164.7 

28 

52.6 

67.  i 

82.3 

89.6 

104.7 

120.3 

124.8 

140.4 

156.4 

30 

49-4 

63-3 

77-7 

84-4 

98.8 

113.8 

117.7 

132.7 

148.2 

32 

46-3 

59-5 

73-2 

79  .2 

93-0 

I07-3 

no.  6 

125.0 

139-9 

34 

43-2 

55-6 

68.7 

74.0 

87.1 

100.8 

103-5 

"7.3 

131  .6 

36 

40.1 

51-8 

64.1 

68.7 

81.2 

94-3 

96.4 

109.6 

12"^  .  3 

38 

37-o 

48.0 

59-6 

63-5 

75-3 

87.8 

89.4 

101.9 

II5.0 

40 

33-9 

44.1 

55-o 

58.3 

69-5 

81.3 

82.2 

94.2 

106.7 

*  From  Carnegie,  Phipps  &  Co.'s  Hand  Books. 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

SAFE   LOADS    IN   TONS   OF  2000   LBS. 
STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS,  SQUARE  ENDS. 

Allowed  strains  per  square  inch  for  steel,  safety  factor  4 : 
12,000  Ibs.  for  lengths  of  90  radii  or  under. 

17,100-57-  for  lengths  over  90  radii. 


10"  STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section :  4  Z-bars  5"  deep  and  i  web  plate  7"  x  thickness  of  Z-bars. 


^C     ' 

^.S  A 

00   BOO' 

roc     ' 

NC    • 

N-     C*     M 

°-  B*  ro 

°°c   • 

«e    • 

in""  "S 

ro~    ° 

Length  of 

!l  OT  it 

If"" 

^  O>  ro 

"•a 

«>  tyro 
II*,, 

iTs1* 

II  ^ 

M^M' 

ii  5  IT 

||  £  || 

Column 
in  Feet. 

1^3 

3^.? 

3  s° 

rt  •*^- 

§r.? 

1*3 

3^7 

l*s 

53  "  Q 

53  '[£ 

53  ''  Q 

53  I'  g 

55  ".a 

S3    «E 

53  "1 

jg  "  a 

|jr| 

<sf 

*jt 

*lk 

^Jt 

•B5K 

Si1- 

3lk 

^ 

22  and  | 
under  f 

94-7 

114.2 

133-9 

147.0 

166.2 

185.6 

196.0 

214.9 

234.0 

24 

92.8 

112.  6 

133-1 

144.6 

164.8 

185-3 

193.6 

213  9 

234.0 

26 

89-3 

108.6 

128.3 

39-2 

158-7 

178.7 

186.5 

206.2 

226.6 

28 

85-8     • 

104.4 

123-5 

13.8 

152.7 

172.1 

179-3 

198-5 

218.4 

3° 

82.3 

100.2 

118.7 

28.4 

146.7 

165.5 

172.2 

190.8 

2IO.  2' 

32 

78.8 

96.1 

113.8 

23.0 

140.7 

158.9 

165.0 

183.1 

2O2.O 

34 

75-3 

•   91-9 

109.  i 

17.6 

134-7 

152-3 

157-9 

175-4 

193-8 

36 

71.8 

87.8 

104.3 

12.2 

128.7 

145-7 

150.7 

167.8 

185.6 

38 

68.3 

83.6 

99-5 

06.8 

122.7 

139.1 

143-6 

160.0 

177-4 

40 

64.8 

79-4 

94-7 

IOI-4 

116.7 

132-5 

135-5 

152.3 

169.1 

42 

61.3 

75-3 

89.9 

96.O 

no.  6 

125  9 

129.4 

144.6 

160.9 

44 

57-7 

71-1 

85.1 

90.6 

104.6 

"9-3 

122.2 

136.9 

152.7 

46 

54-2 

67.0 

80.3 

85.2 

98.6 

112.7 

II5.I 

129.2 

144-5 

48 

50.7 

62  8 

75-5 

79-8 

92.6 

106.  i 

107.9 

121.5 

136.3. 

5° 

47-2 

58.6 

70.7 

74-4 

86.6 

99-5 

100.8 

113.8 

128.  r 

12"   STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  6"  deep  and  i  web  plate  8"  x  thickness  of  Z-bars. 


-=^ 

„  c  N. 

00    C    ^ 

vS-So 

«d^ 

<?£  A 

"S'co 

|B-  . 

"«'*• 

Length  of 

^0-  ro 
jl"" 

~*n 

~-  o  " 

°"a<  ro 

II  «  ,1 

0     .   *^ 

wfi7 

ll* 

f\t* 

^^ 

II      H     II 

-  cr  rn 

II  "II 

Column 

rt  M  ^ 

"rt  06  ^ 

—  *   ^  /—  s 

^-     ^J.'-v 

•—     QQ    ^^- 

•—  ;   Q  .  —  s 

•~~*           ij-'*'^ 

•—  '    fc.-'^' 

in  Feet. 

w  N.S 

t;   w  c 

U    N  G 

4-»      ^G 

5  <^c 

4-t      ^  C 

^_»    ^c 

2  ^c 

—  '    ^  C 

53  n'f 

53  "  "E 

I  ".1 

11^ 

s|ll 

i^ 

y* 

y^ 

26  and  / 
under  f 

128.3 

150-3 

172.6 

187.3 

209.1 

231  .0 

243.0 

264-5 

286.1 

28 

27.0 

149.7 

172  5 

186.0 

208.9 

230.3 

240.8 

261.4 

282.1 

30 

23.0 

145  i 

167.6 

180.2 

202.5 

223.3 

233.2 

253.2 

273.2 

32 

19.0 

14°.  5 

162.4 

174-5 

196.1 

216.3 

225.7 

245.0 

264.2 

I5-1 

135-9 

157-2 

168.7 

189.8 

209.2 

218.2 

236.7 

255-2 

36 

iii 

131-3 

152.0 

162.9 

183.4 

2O2.  I 

210.6 

228.4 

246.3 

38 

07.1 

*    126.7 

146.8 

157.  T 

177  o 

I95-I 

203.1 

22O.  2 

237-3 

40 

103.1 

122.  I 

141-5 

i5i-4 

170.7 

188.0 

195.6 

2II.9 

228.3 

42 

09.1 

"7-5 

136.3 

145-5 

164.4 

180.9 

188.0 

203-7 

219.4 

44 

95-1 

112.9 

131.1 

139-8 

158.0 

173-9 

180.5 

195-5 

210  4 

91.2 

108.3 

126.2 

i34-o 

151.6 

166.8 

172.9 

187.2 

201.4 

48 

87.2 

103  .6 

120.  7 

128.2 

145.3 

159-8 

165.4 

179.0 

192.4 

50 

83.2 

99.1 

ii5-5 

122.4 

138.9 

152.7 

157.9 

170.7 

183.5 

COLUMNS. 


SAFE  LOADS   IN  TONS   OF  2000  LBS. 
STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS,  SQUARE  ENDS. 

Allowed  strains  per  square  inch  for  steel,  safety  factor  4 : 
12,000  Ibs.  for  lengths  of  90  radii  or  under. 

17,100-57-  for  lengths  over  90  radii. 

14"   STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section :  4  Z-bars  6^"  x  ft",     i  web  plate  8"  x  ft",    z  side  plates  14"  wide. 


10 
CO      . 

lr- 

•* 

rr- 

t 

'o  a    • 

H 

•4-  . 

II  6-  A 

il  cr* 

II  crA 

II    d-A 

nS3 

II  cr^ 

1!  6.«n 

II  o-A 

Length  of 

8  o  'I 

£w  il 

3  S»ll 

g*u 

So  II 

£<£  II 

g?" 

8  «H 

in  Feet. 

l!?S 

—  °  7 

SR-2 

E  *ri 

-^"a 

J5  £7 

js  ^ 

-«'c 

JSvO^ 

•*<& 

5-][! 

alls 

i,^ 

jjojl 

^"1 

Sr 

ir 

?"" 

;t~ 

*r 

28  and  | 
under  ) 

294.0 

304-5 

315-0 

325-5 

336-0 

346.5 

357-0 

367-5 

378.0 

30 

286.6 

297.2 

307-7 

318.3 

328.9 

339-5 

350.0 

360.4 

37°-y 

32 

277.8 
269.0 
260.1 

288.1 

269.8 

298.3 
288.9 
279-5 

308.6 

298.9 
289.2 

318.9 
308.9 
298.9 

329.2 

318.9 
308.6 

339-4 
328.8 
318.2 

349-5 
338.6 
327-7 

359-7 
348.6 
337-4 

38 
40 

251-3 
242.5 

260.7 

251  .6 

270.1 
260.  7 

279.5 
269.7 

289.0 
278.9 

298:3 
288.0 

307.6 
297.0 

316.8 
306.0 

326.2 
3I5-0 

42 

233-7 

242.5 

251.3 

260.1 

269.0 

277.8 

286.4 

295.1 

303.8 

44 

224.9 

233-3 

241.9 

250.4 

258.9 

267.4 

275.8 

284.2 

292.6 

46 

216.0 

224.3 

232.4 

240.7 

249.0 

257.2 

265.2 

273-3 

281.5 

48 

207.2 

215.1 

223.0 

230.9 

238  9 

246.9 

254.6 

262.4 

270.3 

50 

198.4 

206.0 

213.6 

221.3 

229.0 

236-5 

244.0 

251-5 

259  -1 

14"   STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  6"  x  %".     i  web  plate  8"  x  %".    2  side  plates  14"  wide. 


^ 

^. 

ro 

rr- 

N 

N 

„ 

M 

q 

d\  . 

tss 

10     . 

II  d-^ 

II  crw 

II  cr£ 

II  cr^ 

II  cy  fh 

II  6^ 

II  6-^ 

II  o-A 

Length  of 
Column 
in  Feet. 

Sol" 

7T  ^c" 

—  OTO 

li^ 

Hd 

SoU 

l^ri 

li^ 

8  2>n 

8  "II 

P«  it  'S 

0H     ||  'S 

OH  II  •— 

jje'lj, 

fjf 

*j*l 

ffi£c^^ 

*  s 

•fjjx 

x<t* 

v    ftT 

25  «— 

S5^S 

?5 

?^ 

y"* 

?~ 

^."* 

?2 

28  and   1 
under  f 

306.0 

316.5 

327.0 

337-5 

348.0 

358.5 

369.0 

379-5 

390.0 

30 

296.7 

307.2 

317.8 

328.3 

338.9 

349-4 

359  9 

370.5 

381-1 

32 

287.4 

297.6 

3°7-9 

318.2 

328.4 

338.7 

348.9 

359-1 

369-4 

34 

278.1 

288.0 

298.0 

308.0 

318.0 

327  .Q 

337-8 

347-8 

357-8 

36 

268.8 

278.4 

288.2 

297.9 

307  4 

317-2 

326.8 

336.4 

346.1 

38 

259-5 

268.8 

278.3 

287.7 

297.0 

306.4 

325  -1 

334-5 

40 

250.2 

259-3 

268.4 

277.5 

286.5 

295-6 

304-7 

3I3-7 

322.8 

42 

240.9 

249.7 

258-5 

267.3 

276.  i 

284  8 

293.6 

302.4 

311.2 

44 

231.6 

240.1 

248.6 

257.1 

265.6 

274.1 

282.5 

291.0 

299.6. 

46 

222.4 

2.30-5 

238.7 

246.9 

255-1 

263.4 

27T-5 

279.7 

287.9 

48 

213.0 

22O-9 

228.8 

236.8 

244.7 

252.6 

260.4 

268.3 

276.2 

50 

203.7 

2II.3 

219.0 

226.6 

234-2 

241.8 

249.4 

257.0 

264.6 

SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


SAFE   LOADS    IN   TONS   OF   2000   LBS. 
STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS,  SQUARE  ENDS. 

Allowed  strains  per  square  inch  for  steel,  safety  factor  4 : 
12,000  Ibs.  for  lengths  of  90  radii  or  under. 

17,100-57-  for  lengths  over  90  radii. 

14"   STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  6^"  x  \\".     i  web  plate  8"  x  }g".    2  side  plates  14"  wide. 


VO 

>? 

S. 

A  . 

8*c  • 

s  . 

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5.  . 

M 

II  crm 

II  crS 

||   o-ro 

II  o-« 

II  d-S 

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II   o-ro 

1!   o«^ 

11     '   m 

Length  of 
Column 

8*" 

8  "J^ 

»3i 

|«i 

J^i 

|sl 

8-  " 

oS    *r>-^ 

S^I 

rt  oo  O 

in  Feet. 

J  *7 

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E  If'! 

E  1^1 

^i 

E*| 

fi'JI 

r"°  = 
^  ii  g 

S»"i 

S^-s 

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°>H   •  ^-" 

*^»T 

"IHC/J'~' 

v^'T 

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*^tn  " 

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^~ 

TJ-—  ' 

<*— 

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26  and  I 
under  f 

327.5 

338.0 

348.5 

359-0 

369-5 

380.0 

390.5 

401.0 

4H-5 

28 

326.7 

337-5 

348.5 

359-o 

369-5 

380.0 

390.5 

401  .0 

4"-5 

30 

3l6-7 

327.2 

337-7 

348.3 

358.9 

369.5 

380.0 

390.6 

401.  1 

32 
34 

206.6 

296.6 

318.0 
306.6 

327-2 
316.6 

337-4 
326.5 

347-7 

336.5 

358.0 
346.5 

368.2 
356.4 

378.5 

366.4 

388.8 
376.4 

36 

286.7 

296.4 

306.0 

315-7 

325-3 

335-0 

344-7 

354-3 

364.0 

38 

276.7 

286.0 

205.4 

304.8 

3^4  -2 

3=3-6 

332.9 

342-3 

40 

266.6 

275-7 

284.8 

293-9 

303-0 

312.1 

321.2 

330.3 

339-3 

42 

256.6 

265.5 

274-3 

283.0 

291.8 

300.6 

309.4 

318.2 

327.0 

246.6 

255-2 

263.6 

272.2 

280.6 

289.2 

297.6 

306.1 

314.6 

46 

236.6 

244.9 

253-0 

261.3 

260.5 

277.7 

285.8 

294.0 

302.3 

48 

226.7 

234.6 

242.5 

250.4 

258.3 

266.2 

274.1 

282.0 

290.0 

5° 

216.6 

224.3 

231.0 

239-5 

247.1 

254.8 

262.3 

269.9 

277.6 

14"   STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  6|"  x  £".     i  web  plate  8"  x  £".     2  side  plates  14"  wide. 


oo 

00 

^ 

K 

VO 

VO 

,n 

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8.S  ce- 

?.S   ^ 

S.S4 

s.s  ^> 

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II  crS 

ll  0"  rn 

II  d-A 

11  S"^ 

II  P"  A 

II   0*  ro 

II  cr  £ 

II    0^^ 

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Length  of 
Column 
in  Feet. 

Sjll 

jS.ii 

14 

£tn 

1% 

U    N    II 

P.? 

If! 

ffe 

1^ 

lU 

^!-^- 

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-*"  a 

s?  '.1 

WHO   ''     E 

ss".I 

s3 

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r2 

?£ 

?". 

?£ 

26  and  | 
under  f 

349-1 

359-6 

370.1 

380.6 

391-1 

401.6 

412.1 

422.6 

433  i 

28 

347-4 

358.3 

369.  1 

380.0 

390.9 

401  .6 

412.  1 

422.6. 

431  •  r 

30 

336.7 

347-2 

357-9 

368  4 

378.9 

389-5 

400.1 

410.7 

421.2 

32 

326.0 

336.3 

346.6 

356.8 

367-1 

377-3 

387.6 

397-9 

408.2 

34 

3X5'3 

.    335-2 

345-2 

355-1 

365-2 

375-2 

395  -1 

36 

304-5 

314.2 

324.0 

-33-6 

343-3 

353-0 

362.7 

372-4 

382.0 

38 

293-8 

303-2 

312.6 

322  o 

331-4 

340.8 

35°  2 

359-6 

369.0 

40 

283.1 

292  .2 

301-3 

310.4 

319-5 

328.6 

337-7 

346.8 

355-9 

42 

272.3 

28l.2 

290.0 

298.8 

307.6 

316.4' 

325-2 

334-0 

342.8 

44 

261.6 

270.  2 

278.7 

287.2 

295-7 

304.2 

312.7 

321.2 

329.8 

46 
48 

250.9 
240.2 

259-1 
248.1 

267.4 
256.1 

275.6 
264.0 

283.8 
272.0 

292.  i 
279:8 

300.3 
287.8 

308-5 
295-7 

3-6.7 
303-6 

50 

229.5 

237-1 

244.8 

252.4 

260.0 

267.6 

275-3 

283.0 

290.6 

COLUMNS. 

SAFE   LOADS    IN   TONS   OF  2000   LBS. 
STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS,  SQUARE  ENDS. 

Allowed  strains  per  square  inch  for  steel,  safety  factor  4: 
12,000  Ibs.  for  lengths  of  90  radii  or  under. 

17,100-57-  for  lengths  over  90  radii. 

16"  STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  6^"  x  %".     i  web  plate  10"  x  i".    2  side  plates  16"  wide. 


43 


^ 

10 

rr> 

M 

Ox 

^ 

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rr> 

„ 

S  ^  o 

•*  c  ^ 

IT)  £        • 

VO  c   „' 

vo~d  ej 

^c  N- 

II  d"*- 

II  cr-t- 

II  d-4 

II  cr4 

II  £4 

II  0-4 

1!  cr£ 

II  cr^ 

Length  of 

§5.ii 

"Jill 

en  "   l| 

8  £." 

!£  £." 

en  m  '1 

gin 

£  £.11 

8  '£.» 

Column 
in  Feet. 

Is.? 

!«? 

|°? 

—  s-'d' 

|f? 

*!T-n 

|~.? 

1*2 

1*2 

*!if 

*]|f 

7^'T 

*"'f 

rxa  "   S 

?lt 

-!- 

"!^ 

"S"~ 

V 

* 

* 

*s 

^S 

32  and  ) 
under  j 

400.1 

412.1 

424.1 

436.1 

448.1 

46o.: 

472.1 

484.1 

496.1 

34 

397-7 

409.8 

421.9 

433-9 

446.0 

458.1 

470.2 

482.2 

494-2 

36 

387.6 

399.3 

411.1 

422.9 

434-7 

446.5 

458.2 

470  o 

481.8 

38 

377-5 

388.9 

400.4 

411.8 

434.8 

446.3 

457-9 

469-3 

40 

367-3 

378  5 

389-6 

400.9 

412.1 

423.2 

434-4 

445-6 

456.7 

42 

357-1 

368.0 

378.9 

389-8 

400.7 

411  .6 

422.5 

433-4 

444-2 

347-o 
336-9 

357-6 
347-1 

368.2 
357-4 

378.8 

378-1 

400.0 

388.4 

410.5 
398.6 

421.1 

409.0 

431-7 

419.2 

48 

326.7 

336.7 

346.7 

356.7 

366.7 

386.7 

396.7 

406.7 

5° 

316.6 

326.3 

336.0 

345-7 

355-4 

365-1 

374-8 

384-5 

394-2 

18"  STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  6^j"  x  %".     i  web  plate  12"  x  i".    2  side  plates  18"  wide. 


_^ 

0 

^ 

0 

0 

VO 

f> 

o> 

VO 

6    . 
•*  c    • 

*d  • 

10    . 

4?d  . 

P-d  • 

•Rd  4 

1  c  N- 

<*'C'vd 

§>  =  vd 

11  cr£ 

i|  ^ 

»'"  §* 
M  o*  4 

I,  ^7 

II  ^^ 

II  cr^> 

II  g-A 

ifcj-3) 

II  "j,£ 

Length  of 
Column 
in  Feet. 

1*3 

Ij3 

§«ll 
2?3 

8  "  il 

Is 

8  £-11 

Js  s^ 

8»N 

Ifs 

OU   <N    II 

Ifi 

v  ^  II 

C/3           'i 

^  .1 

^"s 

a"l 

HO  "    S 

»  "1 

«w'1  S 

»".s 

2S!l-i 

II  '3 

t-<         C 

oo£ 

CjO- 

oo—  « 

£5 

00  — 

00  — 

oo  — 

CO  — 

34  and  | 
under  f 

424.1 

437-6 

45^-1 

464.6 

478.. 

491.6 

505-I 

518.6 

532.1 

36 

419.7 

436.8 

451-1 

464.6 

478.1 

491.6 

505  -1 

518.6 

532.1 

38 

409.4 

426.4 

443-2 

456    2 

476.8 

491.6 

505-1 

518.6 

532.1 

40 

399-2 

416.0 

432-7 

449-5 

466.0 

482.6 

499.1 

514.2 

527-5 

.42 

388.9 

405.6 

422.3 

438.8 

455-3 

471.7 

488.1 

503-0 

516.0 

44 
46 

378.7 
368.4 

395-2 

411.7 

4OI  .2 

428.2 
4'7-5 

444-5 
433  8 

460.8 

449-9 

477-0 
466.0 

491.8 
480.5 

504-5 

493-o 

48 

358-1 

374-5 

390.7 

406.9 

423.0 

439-0 

454-9 

469  3 

481.4 

50 

347-9 

364.1 

380.2 

396-2 

412.2 

428.1 

443-9 

458.1 

469.9 

44  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS.. 

SAFE   LOADS   IN   TONS   OF  2000  LBS. 
STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS,  SQUARE  ENDS. 

Allowed  strains  per  square  inch  for  steel,  safety  factory : 
12,000  Ibs.  for  lengths  of  90  radii  or  under. 

17,100-57-  for  lengths  over  90  radii. 

20"   STEEL   Z-BAR   COLUMNS. 
Section :  4  Z-bars  6J#'  x  %".     i  web  plate  14"  x  i".    Side  plates  20"  wide. 


2  Side  Plates. 

4  Side  Plates. 

fc* 

ro  •    . 

ON 

Li 

o- 
%c-o 

i-s'io 

» 

ro—  ^ 

Is* 

||  6<in 

il  <3"° 

||  crio 

n  •  *° 

i|     •  10 

||    CfO 

1!  6"o 

||  o*  in 

Length  of 

^ 

g  w  II 

v  ^il 

cS  "  l! 

IS  £ii 

<S    M    " 

v  ^l! 

V   «   " 

w  ^" 

Column 

3<27 

^rt  QX  • 

«  o^n 

^S  —  c 

rt   ON  ^ 

rt    O  o 

~   °  G 

«  o"  c 

rt  o"3" 

in  Feet. 

sellS  ' 

Eirg 

<H| 

y»l 

$5»f 

|;| 

5-"l 

Jnl 

§- 

8 

O 

8 

8 

8 

8" 

38  and  ) 
under  j 

538.1 

553-1 

568.1 

583-1 

598.1 

613.1 

628.1 

643.1 

658.1- 

40 

532-9 

55'-i 

568.1 

583-1 

598.1 

613.1 

628.1 

643.1 

658.1 

42 
44 

521.2 

509-5 

539-2 
527-3 

557-2 
545-3 

574-5 
562.3 

591-9 

579-4 

609.0 

596.5 

626.4 
613-7 

643.  x 
630.7 

648.o 

46 

497-7 

S'S-S 

533-3 

550-1 

567.0 

583.8 

600.9 

617.8 

634.8 

48 

486.1 

503.6 

521.2 

538.0 

554-6 

571-2 

588.1 

604.8 

621.6 

50 

474-4 

491.8 

509.2 

525  7 

542.2 

558.6 

575-2 

591-8 

608.4. 

20"  STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section  :  4  Z-bars  6^"  x  %".     i  web  plate  14"  x  i".    4  side  plates  20"  wide. 


10 

0 

10 

q 

m 

q 

10 

0 

10 

W   C 

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as  • 

OG    . 

M  G 

Jd 

£  fi- 

i fi- 

jd 

II  cr^ 

"JA 

1*4 

II  crS 

ll  a-? 

ii  0-5 

M    10 

Length  of 

|   «   II 

«MI 

s  «  II 

«  «MI 

2  ".II 

«  ^^ 

S  2-" 

«i    ^    II 

in  Feet. 

PL.  M  c 

P-,    M   G 

OH    M    C 

PH  H  G 

PH    H   C 

PL,  H  c 

E   2  G 

PH    H   C 

PH    M  G 

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8" 

" 

8- 

8" 

8" 

8" 

42  and   ( 
under  f 

673-1 

688.1 

703.1 

718.1 

733-1 

748.1 

763-1 

778.1 

793  -1 

665.0 

682.5 

699.7 

717.0 

733  -r 

748.1 

763-1 

778.i 

793-1 

46 

65^-7 

668.8 

686.0 

703  -1 

720.2 

735-6 

750.2 

764-7 

779-3 

48 
50 

638.4 
625.0 

655-3 
641.7 

672.2 
658.4 

689.2 
675-3 

706.  i 
692.0 

721.2 
706.8 

735-5 
720.8 

749-8 
734-8 

764.1 
748.8 

COLUMNS. 

SAFE  LOADS   IN   TONS  OF  2000  LBS. 
STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS,  SQUARE  ENDS. 

Allowed  strains  per  square  inch  for  steel,  safety  factor  4  r 
12,000  Ibs.  for  lengths  of  90  radii  or  under. 


17,100-57-  for  lengths  over  90  radii. 


20"  STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section :  4  Z-bars  6J6"  x  %".     i  web  plate  14"  x  i".    6  side  plates  20"  wide. 


45 


q   . 

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q 

3 

q 

•9 

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q 

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w  N  1! 

11  £^ 

11  S*J7 

11  g4!? 

11  ^Jl1 

Length  of 
Column 
in  Feet. 

W         •   --S 

S  ^"—  < 

I?! 

||| 

yi 

IS 

8- 

x-0 

0 

a£ 

8" 

a" 

a 

x£^ 

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a£ 

a.15 

44  and  ) 
under  } 

808.  i 

823.1 

838.1 

853-1 

868.1 

883.1 

898.1 

913-1 

928.1 

46 

793-7 

808.3 

823.0 

837-5 

852.1 

866.7 

881.2 

895-8 

910.4 

48 

778.2 

792.5 

806.9 

821.2 

835.5 

849.7 

864.0 

878.3 

892.6 

50- 

762.6 

776.7  . 

790.8 

804.7 

818.7 

832.8 

846.7 

860.7 

874-7 

20"  STEEL  Z-BAR  COLUMNS. 
Section :  4  Z-bars  6^"  x  %''.    i  web  plate  14"  x  i".    6  side  plates  20"  wide. 


IO 

o 

10 

q 

m 

q 

m 

10.  —    Q- 

£s  • 

S.c'    - 

tT).^.    ^J 

oo    . 

^S^ 

Jo.S     • 

^•S'o, 

°'0 

•#s 

11  *% 

»§rl 

"^^ 

II  o-~ 

11  ^5 

II  g1*? 

m  ^to 

Length  of 

G0 

^j      .    II 

%  *?\\ 

03 

S«M| 

w  N  || 

^  t~-  || 

Column 

rt  !o'~s 

X    ^  —  . 

rt  .^  ,  s 

OS  vn"^^ 

rt  vo*^^ 

Ct  yR^^^ 

^3  t^^*^ 

-^        ^^->s 

in  Feet. 

PH    M   G' 

eu  "_d 

£  "  c 

E  «_c 

E  n  -s' 

EC  »_e 

^  M  S 

rt  -  c 

"G".l 

•f^i 

?p 

•fjlS 

?!!|- 

Sj5 

•am  1!  'g 

fc  II  j 

a" 

§~ 

•" 

a" 

a" 

8- 

a"" 

42  and   / 
under  f 

943.1 

958.1 

973-1 

988.1 

1003.1 

1018.1 

1033.1 

1048.1 

44     . 

943  -1 

958.1 

973-o 

987.8 

1002.5 

1017.5 

1032.3 

1047-3 

46 

925.0 

939-6 

954-2 

968.8 

983-3 

997-7 

1012.3 

1026.8 

48 

966.9 

921.1 

935  4 

949-6 

963-9 

978.1 

992.3 

1006.5 

50 

888.7 

902.6 

916.6 

930.5 

944-5 

953.4 

972.4 

9.86.1 

46 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


Phoenix  Columns. — To  determine  the  value  of  Phoenix 
columns  under  loads,  from  tests,  the  following  formula  has 
been  adopted : 


P 
S 


42,000 

rzzzi1 

r  5o,ooor2 


P  total  load  in  pounds 

The  expression  -~-  represents  the  — -: r—    — —         — . — r — ; 

o  sectional  area  in  square  inches 

or,  in  other  words,  the  crushing  strain  per  square  inch  of  sec- 
tion ;  /  is  the  length  in  feet  between  bearings,  and  r  is  the 
least  radius  of  gyration. 

Applying  the  above  formula  to  the  several  patterns  of  seg- 
mental  columns,  the  table  of  allowable  working  strains  per 
square  inch  of  section  has  been  prepared  ;  the  allowable  work- 
ing strains  being  in  each  case  about  one  fourth  of  the  ultimate 
Strength  of  the  column. 


SAFE  LOADS  FOR  PHCENIX  COLUMNS,  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE 
INCH    OF    SECTIONAL   AREA. 

SQUARE-END  BEARINGS. 


Length  in 
Feet. 

Col.  A. 

Col.  B*. 

Col.  B*. 

Col.  C. 

Col.  E. 

Col;  G. 

IO 

9,323 

9,833 

10,024 

10,195 

10,351 

10,411 

12 

8,885 

9,564 

9,830 

10,067 

10,288 

10,371 

14 

8,420 

9,267 

9,607 

9,924 

10,215 

10,326 

16 

7,943 

8,944 

9,364 

9,783 

10,131 

10,275 

18 

7,463 

8,610 

9-105 

9,575 

10,037 

10,216 

20 

6,997 

8,260 

8,830 

9,386 

9,935 

10,152 

22 

6,526 

7,906 

8,54i 

9,185 

9,824 

10,082 

24 

6,090 

7,550 

8,250 

8,'973 

9-705 

10,005 

26 

7  2OI 

7  Q55 

8  755 

Q  58O 

28 

6,860 

7,660 

8  527 

9ACQ 

o  841 

3O- 

6,527 

7,366 

8.2Q7 

Q  314 

97^O 

q2 

7,07^ 

8  070 

91  7O 

9f)CA 

•21 

7  817 

9  O2I 

9r  CC 

•3,6 

7  6o4 

8,87O 

-3.8 

7  -3.75 

8  717 

9^-11 

40 

7,147 

8  q6r 

92^c 

COL  UMNS. 


47 


TABLE   OF   DIMENSIONS   OF  PHCENIX   COLUMNS.      • 

The  dimensions  given  in  the  following  table  are  subject 
to  slight  variations,  which  are  unavoidable  in  rolling  iron 
shapes. 

The  weights  of  columns  given  are  those  of  the  4,  6,  or  8 
segments  of  which  they  are  composed.  The  shanks  of  the 
rivets  used  in  joining  the  segments  together  only  make  up  the 
quantity  of  metal  removed  in  making  the  holes,  but  the  rivet- 
heads  add  from  2  to  5  per  cent  to  the  weights  given.  The- 
rivets  are  spaced  3,  4,  or  6  inches  apart  from  centre  to  centre,, 
and  somewhat  more  closely  at  the  ends  thai>  toward  the  centre 
of  the  column. 

Any  desired  thickness  between  the  minimum  and  maximum, 
for  any  given  size  can  be  furnished.  £  columns  have  8  seg- 
ments, E  columns  6  segments,  C,  £\  B\  and  A  have  4  segments- 

Least  radius  of  gyration  equals  D  Y  .3636. 


One  Segment. 

Diameters  in  Incl^s. 

One  Column. 

Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

Weight 
in  Lbs. 
per 
Yard. 

d 
Inside. 

D 
Outside. 

0  ver 

Area  of 
Cross- 
section. 
Sq.  In. 

Weight 
per  Fool 
in 
Pounds. 

Least 
Radius  of 
Gyration 
in  Ins. 

Size  of 
Rivets. 

A 

9* 

f 

4 

6,1 

3-8 

12.6 

•45 

*Xi* 

i 

12 

T  •< 

4t 

6j3a      \-      4-8 

16.0 

•50 

!}" 

A 

14* 

< 

4i 

6A                5.8 

19-3 

•55 

If 

1 

17 

I 

4t 

6j7s      (        6.8 

22.6 

•59 

Ii 

i 

16 

{ 

5T5B 

\ 
8  A      \         *•* 

21.3 

.92 

iXif 

TBS 

19* 

5T76 

8i 

»./* 

26.0 

.96 

If 

f 

23 

~+ 

5i9s 

8i 

9-^ 

30.6 

.02 

If 

T7S 

26|- 

1    4 

5H 

8t 

10.4 

35-3 

.07 

if 

j 

30 

CQ 

ST§ 

8/a 

12.0 

40.0 

.  ii 

If 

A 

33* 

5« 

8* 

13-4         ) 

44-6 

.16 

2 

f 

37 

6A 

8| 

I4.8 

4^-3 

.20 

2* 

t 

18* 

6T7g 

9* 

7-4 

24.6 

•34 

*Xif 

A 

22^ 

6r93 

9i 

9.0 

30.0 

•39 

f 

26* 

6rs 

9i55 

10.6 

35-3 

•43 

if 

ITB 

30} 

J      ^ 

6il 

9t 

12.2 

40.6 

.48 

If 

i 

34* 

CQ 

611 

9* 

13-8 

46.0 

.51 

If 

ft 

38* 

71V 

9* 

15.4 

51.3 

.--» 

2 

f 

42* 

• 

7x'S 

9fl 

17.0 

56.6 

61 

2f 

48  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Least  radius  of  gyration  equals  D  X  .3636— (continued). 


One  Segment. 

Diameters  in  Inches. 

One  Column. 

Thick- 
ness in 
inches. 

Weight 
in  Lbs. 
per 
Yard. 

d 
Inside. 

D 
Outside. 

Over 
Flanges. 

Area  of 
Cross- 
section. 
Sq.  In. 

Weight 
per  Foot 
in 
Pounds. 

Least 
Radius  of 
Gyration 
in  Ins. 

Size  of 
Rivets. 

t 

25 

7« 

»A 

10.  0 

33-3 

2.80 

t  X  if  ' 

A 

30 

7i3 

n| 

12.  O 

40.0 

2.85 

2 

f 

35 

7ii 

"ft 

14.0 

46.6 

2.90 

at 

A 

40 

%rs 

"i 

l6.O 

53-3 

2.94 

at 

$ 

45 

8A 

"i! 

l8.0 

60.0 

2.98 

2f 

T98 

48 

«e 

BA 

"t 

I9.2 

64.0 

3-03 

at 

f. 

53 

i 

8i7ff 

12 

21  .2 

70.6 

3.08 

at 

ft 

58 

o- 

8y9s 

«A 

23-2 

77-3 

3-12 

3X2| 

f 

63 

8ft 

I2!3g 

25.2 

84.0 

3.16 

at 

if 

68 

8Ji 

I2T5g 

27.2 

90.6 

3-21 

af 

t 

73 

811 

12TB 

29.2 

97-3 

3.26 

3 

83 

9  16 

I2Iff 

33-2 

no.  6 

3.34 

at 

Ji 

93 

9h 

13} 

37-2 

124.0 

3-43 

2f 

** 

103 

9ft 

««H 

41.2 

137-3 

3-52 

3 

i 

28 

f 

'    „* 

15/5             16.8 

56 

4.18 

1X2 

i6s 

32 

"f 

15  A 

19.2 

64 

4-23 

at 

•$ 

36 

lit 

i5}j 

21.6 

72 

4.28 

2i 

A 

40 

nf 

isti 

24.0 

80 

4-32 

at 

44 

12 

i5j 

26.4 

88 

4-36 

at 

•5*5 

48 

12^ 

16 

28.8 

96 

4.40 

2f 

t 

53 

T    - 

I2± 

16^5 

31.8 

1  06 

4-45 

at 

ft 

58 

u 

iaf 

i6j% 

34.8 

116 

4-50 

f  X  2$ 

63 

I2| 

i6TB5 

37-8 

126 

4-55 

2| 

U 

68 

I2| 

l6!7S 

40.8 

136 

4.60 

at 

73 

I2| 

i6f 

43-8 

146 

4.64 

at 

i 

83 

13 

i6| 

49.8 

1  66 

4  73 

2| 

i| 

93 

13  J 

17 

55-8 

186 

4.82 

3 

r* 

103 

I 

I3i 

»7A 

61.8 

206 

4.91 

3t 

A 

30 

15 

I9t 

24 

80.0 

5-45 

1X2 

! 

35 

T5i 

19^ 

28 

93-3 

5-5° 

2 

/5 

40 

'54 

19! 

32 

106,6 

5-55 

at 

| 

45 

15! 

19-^ 

36 

I2O.O 

5-59 

si 

T9B 

50 

ist 

J9t 

40 

133-3 

5  63 

at 

1 

55 

«• 

15! 

i9t 

44 

146.6 

5-68 

at 

ft 

60 

I1 

15! 

19* 

48 

160.0 

5-72 

JXat 

t 

65 

o 

ist 

I9f 

52 

J73-3 

5-77 

at 

*i 

70 

16 

20 

56 

186.6 

5.82 

at 

£ 

75 

16^ 

20^ 

60 

200.  o 

5-87 

sf 

! 

85 

i6t 

aot 

68 

226.6 

5-95 

3 

It 

95 

r6t 

aof 

76 

253-3 

6.04 

3t 

It 

105 

l6t 

20| 

84 

280.0 

6.14 

3i 

x* 

"5 

iTt 

21 

92 

306.6 

6.23 

3t 

CHAPTER   III. 
COLUMN  CONNECTIONS. 

Column  Connections. — It  was  previously  mentioned  that 
the  advantages   of  different   shape  columns   for   connections 


FIG.  31. 

with  the  floor  girders,  wall  girders,  and  with  each  other  per- 
form  an  important  part  in  their  selection;  in  fact,  it  is  so 

49 


50  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

important  that  the  entire  strength  and  rigidity  of  the  struct- 
ure  depends  upon  these  connections. 

Cast-iron  columns  with  wooden  girders, 'as  in  Fig.  31,  were 
used  extensively  at  first  for  the  interior  columns  of  buildings ; 
in  fact,  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  at  the  present  time. 

By  glancing  at  the  details  it  will  be  seen  that  bolts  or 
rivets  are  not  used  in  any  manner  whatever,  and  the  equi- 
librium depends  solely  upon  the  wooden  girders  and  imposed 
weight  holding  the  entire  connection  in  place,  and,  as  one 
writer  has  stated, "  much  the  same  as  a  child  would  pile  blocks 
up  and  steady  the  pile  with  its  hands."  Then  again  the  col- 
umns are  also  connected  to  each  other  in  the  same  style  of 
construction  by  flanges  as  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

In  the  first  detail  the  pintle  A  is  cast  as  a  part  of  the  upper 
columns,  and  the  shape  as  shown.  In  the  second,  the  lower 
column  remains  'the  same  diameter,  and  the  wooden  girders 
are  cut  to  fit  the  shape  of  the  column.  The  columns  are 


SECTION. 
FIG    32. 

secured  to  each  other  by  bolts  through  their  flanges,  and  the 
wooden  girders  are  secured  by  straps  placed  each  side,  as 
shown  in  the  detail. 

The  change  from  wooden  floor  beams  and  girders  to  iron 


COLUMN   CONNECTIONS. 


and  steel  brought  about  some  alterations  in  the  general  details 
of  the  columns,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  33.     Iron  beams  were 


placed  side  by  side,  as  shown  at  B,  in  place  of  the  wooden 
girders ;  then  secured  to  the  column  by  bolts  to  cast-iron  lugs, 
forming  at  the  same  time  a  separator  in  the  girder. 

These  separators  were  made  in  two  ways — one  cast  solid, 
as  at  B,  the  other  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  3,  and  the  girders  rest 
upon  brackets  cast  with  the  column.  The  floor  beams  are  se- 
cured to  the  columns  by  bolts  in  the  same  manner  as  the  girders* 


$2  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

and  also  rest  upon  brackets.  The  lugs  and  brackets  are  cast 
about  the  same  thickness  as  the  column,  and  project  5  or  6 
inches  from  the  body.  This  later  detail,  Fig.  33,  is  generally 
adopted  as  the  connections  for  all  interior  cast-iron  columns, 
and  the  joints,  if  covered  by  a  cast-iron  base,  can  be  at  any 
distance  above  the  floor  beams. 

Cast-iron  Column  Connections  in  the  Skeleton  Frame. 
— In  changing  from  the  ordinary  method  of  building  to  the 
skeleton  frame,  the  joints  of  the  columns  were  altered  some- 
what, and  the  beams  and  girders  when  cast-iron  columns  are 
used  should  be  secured  by  wrought-iron  knees  and  bolts,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  34.  The  columns  were  also  changed  from 


FIG.  34. 

circular  to  square  to  allow  the  masonry  to  fit  square  v/ith  the 
column.     This  form   provides   a   simpler  connection    for   the 


•COLUMN   CONNECTIONS.  53 

cuitain  wall  and  floor  girders  than  the  circular  shape.  The 
flanges  of  the  joint  are  reinforced  by  small  brackets,  as 
shown. 

The  curtain-wall  girders  are  secured  to  the  side  cf  the  col- 
umn  by  knees  and  bolts,  and  further  secured  by  straps  placed 
at  the  back  and  extending  to  the  girders  on  the  opposite 
side. 

This  system  of  bolting  the  floor  girders  to  the  cast-iron 
columns  is  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  depending  upon  lugs  cast 
with  the  column,  as  in  Fig.  33,  for  the  reason  that  any  number 
of  bolts  can  be  placed  in  the  head  to  make  a  rigid  connection 
when  the  joint  especially  is  above  the  girders. 

The  same  system  could  be  used  for  the  curtain-wall  girders  ; 
and  instead  of  using  those  made  up  of  beam  sections,  plate  or 
lattice  girders  could  be  adopted. 

The  weakest  point  of  the  connection  is  at  the  joint  of  the 
column,  and  depends  solely  upon  the  strength  of  the  bolts  in 
the  flanges. 

Z-bar  Column  Connections. — A  material  change  has 
been  effected  from  cast-iron  columns  to  those  made  up  of 
rolled  shapes.  In  these  rolled  material  columns  numerous 
sections  are  formed  by  riveting  together  angles,  plates, 
channels,  I-beams,  Z-shapes,  etc.,  or  of  some  patented  shape 
which  form  segments  of  a  circular  section  such  as  herein  de- 
scribed ;  and,  as  previously  mentioned,  the  requirement  is 
that  the  column  used  shall  be  well  adapted  for  connection. 

It  is  well  known  that  metal  near  the  neutral  axis  of  a 
column  is  not  of  much  value,  and  that  a  proper  disposition  of 
metal  farthest  from  the  neutral  axis  is  best  effected  in  the 
cylindrical  section.  Therefore,  the  unit  strength  of  this  sec- 
tion is  somewhat  greater  in  long  columns  than  that  of  others. 
For  proportion  of  length  to  diameter,  which  occurs  in  the  ma- 
jority of  buildings,  there  is  little  or  no  difference  in  strength 
among  the  various  sections  as  mentioned  above. 

To  overcome  the  bending  tendency  of  the  column  caused 


54 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS*. 


by  eccentric  loading,  the  floor  and  wall  girders  should  be  ap- 
plied as  close  as  possible  to  the  neutral  axis. 

The  advocates  of  the  Z-bar  column,  a  section  made  up  o£ 
four  Z-bars  and  a  plate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35,  claim  that  it  is 


FIG.  35. 

probably  the  best  section  which  meets  the  general  require- 
ments for  the  construction  of  buildings. 

This  section,  they  claim,  combines  a  minimum  of  shop- 
work  with  good  adaptation  for  connection  and  accessibility  of 
all  its  surfaces.  The  sketch  shows  a  single  beam  entering 
between  the  Z-bars  almost  to  the  very  centre  of  the  column,, 
and  secured  by  rivets  through  the  top  and  bottom  flanges ; 
it  also  rests  upon  a  heavy  bracket  made  up  of  angles  and 
riveted  to  the  outer  legs  of  the  Z-bars. 

A  beam  can  also  be  placed  between  the  legs  of  the  Z-bars 
at  right  angles  to  the  one  that  is  shown,  and  supported  upon 
brackets  riveted  to  the  middle  web  of  the  Z-bars. 

The  connection  of  one  column  to  another  is  not  shown  in, 


COLUMN   CONNECTIONS. 


55 


this  figure,  but  is  shown  better  in  Fig.  36.  The  columns  are 
separated  by  a  plate  made  of  various  thicknesses,  depending 
in  a  great  measure  upon  the  load  transmitted  to  the  column 
from  the  floor  girders.  The  curtain-wall  girders  are  placed 
higher  than  the  bottom  of  the  latter  and  rest  upon  cast-iron 
blocks  as  at  A,  which  are  secured  to  the  plate  by  bolts  passing 


FIG.  36. 

through  the  flange  of  the  beams,  then  through  the  cast  blocks 
and  through  the  plate.  Stiffness  and  strength  is  given  to  the 
plate  under  this  girder  by  angle  brackets  riveted  to  the  body 
of  the  column,  as  at  B.  The  plate  is  also  reinforced  under  the 
floor  girder  by  angle-knees,  which  also  serve  to  join  the  col- 
umns together,  with  rivets  passing  through  this  lower  and 
upper  knee,  as  at  D.  The^columns  are  again  stiffened  at  the 
back  by  a  splice  plate,  riveted  by  any  number  of  rivets,  and 
shown  at  E. 


56  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

The  dotted  line  C  represents  the  party  wall  of  the  building-. 
If  this  connection  is  to  be  used  on  the  inner  columns  of  a  build- 
ing, the  plates  between  the  columns  will  extend  to  receive  a 
beam  or  girder  on  the  opposite  side ;  then  the  splice  plate  is 
not  required. 

When  the  Z-bar  column  stands  clear  of  any  wall,  and  is 
placed  to  carry  beams  and  girders  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  being  open  on  four  sides,  so  that  every  beam  or  girder 
may  enter  between  the  flanges,  a  stiffer  connection  could  not 
be  desired.  In  fact,  the  entire  load  is  concentrated  near  the 
centre,  and  every  gain  in  this  direction  adds  greatly  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  column  ;  and  one  in  which  a  one-sided  load 
can  be  applied  close  to  the  axis  is  good  for  a  much  greater 
unit  strain  than  where  the  application  must  be  made  farther 
from  the  centre. 

The  joint  of  these  Z-bar  columns  is  frequently  made  at 
the  top  of  the  girders,  a  plate  also  being  used  to  make  the 
separation ;  then  heavy  brackets  are  riveted  to  the  body  of  the 
column,  as  shown  at  B,  to  support  all  beams  and  girders. 

Phoenix  Column  Connections. — The  makers  of  the 
Phoenix  column  claim,  among  the  many  advantages  of  that 
section,  that  the  means  for  applying  the  loads  closely  to  the 
axis  of  the  column  is  an  advantage  which  places  it  among  the 
many  desirable  sections  to  use. 

For  instance,  if  the  load  is  applied  to  the  shell  of  the 
column  at  one  side,  this  load  travels  around  the  column  and 
downward,  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  so  that,  at  a  distance 
below  the  load  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  column,  the  whole 
column  will  receive  an  equal  load  on  all  parts. 

There  are  several  methods  of  making  connection  to  the 
flanges.  In  some  cases,  where  filler  bars  are  used  between  the 
flanges,  the  load  can  be  transmitted  directly  to  the  opposite 
flange  by  means  of  a  gusset  plate,  or  the  filler  bars  can  be 
forged  out  to  form  a  connection.  In  a  four-segment  column 


COLUMN  CONNECTIONS. 


57 


four  loads  can  be  applied  at  the  four  connecting  flanges,  in  a 
six-segment  column  six,  an  eight-segment  column  eight. 

In  order  to  make  a  desirable 
connection  to  any  column,  the 
bracket  holes  must  fit  the  holes 
in  the  column  exactly,  and  the 
rivets  must  completely  fill  the  holes. 
To  carry  any  great  load,  the  brackets 
must  necessarily  extend  a  great 
distance  below  the  seat  in  order 
to  get  enough  rivets  in  to  take  the 
shear.  This  is  not  the  case  with 
the  filler-bar,  it  extends  the  full 
height  of  column. 

In  Fig.  37  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  cross-pintle  extends  to  By 
or  is  simply  a  continuation  of  the 
web  of  the  floor  girder  carried  clear 
through  the  column,  distributing 
the  load  to  all  parts  of  the  column, 


FIG.  37. 


and  overcoming  in  a  great  measure  the  tendency  of  eccentric 
loading. 

The  wall  girders  are  carried  in  the  same  manner  and 
riveted  to  the  pintles  shown  in  plan  view.  Those  which  carry 
the  wall  girders  are  riveted  to  the  floor-girder  pintle  by  angles 
the  full  height  of  the  pintles. 

The  joint   of  the  columns   is  at   C,   plates  between  being 
dispensed  with.     By  means  of  these  cross-pintles  it  is  possible 
to  make  a  continuous  column  from  cellar  to  roof  in  which  the- 
joints  .are  actually  stronger  than  the  body  of  the  column. 

By  referring  to  the  detail  (Fig.  37)  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  wall  girder  is  composed  of  angles  and  plates  similar  in 
construction  to  the  floor  girder ;  an  angle  is  riveted  to  the  side 
level  with  the  bottom  of  the  floor  beam.  This  is  to  receive 
the  floor  arch.  A  plate  D  is  also  riveted  to  the  bottom  of  the 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


girder,  so  that  the  curtain  wall  may  be  supported  at  each  story. 

The  entire  distance  from  the 
party  line  E  to  the  inside  angle 
of  girder  being  equal  to  12 
inches,  is  supported  upon  a  plate 
II  inches  wide,  if  the  wall  is  16 
inches  the  plate  is  increased  in 
width  and  the  girders  in  section- 
al area.  These  plates  are  gener- 
ally f  of  an  inch  thick  and 
riveted  to  the  angles  with 
rivets  about  6  inches  centres. 
This  section  of  wall  girder  may 
be  applied  to  any  column  or 
number  of  columns;  in  fact, 
the  plate  girder  and  lattice 
girder  seem  to  be  the  best  sec- 
tion that  could  be  used.  The 
lattice  section  is  so  arranged 
that  the  wall  is  built  enclosing  it 
completely.  Angles  are  also 
riveted  to  the  latticing  to  receive 
the  floor  arches. 

Connections    of     Column 
Sections  Made  up  of  Angles 
and   Plates.— Girders   of   built 
FlG-  38.  sections    of    plate    and    angles 

make  more  efficient  connection  than  those  made  up  of  rolled 
beams.  Columns  built  of  the  same  sections  are  more  readily 
joined  together  at  the  floor  levels,  and  with  each  other  than 
any  other  form,  they  give  a  great  amount  of  rigidity,  and  are 
recommended  to  be  used,  especially  when  the  arrangement  of 
the  doors  and  other  openings  which  occur  in  the  partitions 
and  outer  walls  are  such  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  devise 
a  system  of  lateral  bracing.  The  stiffness  of  the  individual 


COLUMN  CONNECTIONS. 


59 


•column  in  a  skeleton-framed  structure — or  in  any  building 
construction — is  an  element  of  resistance  of  considerable  value 
if  the  connections  are  rigid.  If  it  is  impossible  to  apply  lateral 
bracing  to  the  frame  work,  the  columns  should  be  joined  to- 
gether by  complete  splice  plates  on  all  sides  that  have  no  beam 
or  girders  connected  ;  these  splice-plates  could  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage between  the  columns  and  the  girders. 

An  ideal  column,  therefore,  is  one  in  which  each  column  is  a 
unit  throughout  the  entire  height  of  the  building,  which  condi- 
tion is  possible  when  they  are  made  up  as  shown  in  Figs.  36  to  40. 

A  considerable  degree  of  security  against  injury  from  any 
cause  to  which  buildings  are  subjected  can  be  obtained  when 
the  columns  are  constructed  in  this  manner;  in  fact,  the  joints 
at  the  floor  level  are  stronger 
than  the  body  of  the  column. 

Columns  constructed  as 
shown  in  Figs.  36  to  40  can  be 
made  to  any  practical  length, 
some  of  which  are  further  illus- 
trated, where  the  same  section 
is  carried  through  three  stories 
making  the  columns  nearly  40 
feet  in  length. 

Where  so  much  depends 
upon  the  columns  as  in  the  skel- 
eton frame,  every  precaution 
against  accidents  should  be  taken. 

The    rolled    iron    and    steel, 
before  the  members  are  riveted 
have 


together,     should 


these 


members  inspected  singly,  for 
the  quality  of  the  material  and 
for  surface,  and  then  the  finished 
column  inspected  for  workman- 
.ship ;  this  offers  a  guaranty  against  any  serious  failure. 


FIG. 


6o 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


The  connection  shown  at  Fig.  38,  of  the  box  column  made- 
up  of  two  webs,  two  cover  plates,  and  joined  together  by  angles, 
may  be  applied  to  single  web,  Z-bar,  or  any  rectangular  sec- 
tions. 

In  joining  the  upper  and  lower  columns,  they  are  first 
separated  by  the  plate  B,  angle-knees  being  riveted  top  and 
bottom,  through  which  holes  for  bolts  or  rivets  are  punched, 
An  angle-knee  is  also  placed  on  the  inside  face  over  the  floor 

girder.  At  the  back  a 
splice  plate  C,  the  full 
width  of  the  covers,  is 
placed,  extending  at  least 
2  feet  from  the  joint. 
When  the  work  is  riveted 
a  stiff  and  rigid  joint  is 
secured. 

This  same  connection 
may  be  improved  upon  in, 
the  manner  shown  by  Fig. 
39.  When  the  column 
sections  are  decreased  at 
certain  floor  levels  a  filler 
plate  will  be  required,  as. 
shown  at  C.  The  joint  of 
the  column  is  more  rigid 
in  this  connection,  but  to. 
prevent  any  lateral  dis- 
placement of  the  floor 
girdeis  and  columns  the 
knee-braces  are  preferred. 
When  high  and  narrow 
buildings  are  designed  the 
ideal  joint  is  that  shown 
at  Fig.  40,  the  plate  sepa- 


FIG.  40. 


rating  the  upper  and  lower  column  being  placed  at  the  centre. 


COLUMN  CONNECTIONS.  6l 

of  floor  girder ;  the  knee-brace  A  placed  at  the  ceiling  and  the 
brace  B  at  the  floor  level. 

The  curtain-wall  girder,  if  made  of  I-beams,  will  be  level  with 
the  bottom  of  floor  beam  D\  if  made  of  a  plate  or  latticing 
it  can  be  secured  to  the  lower  and  upper  column  much  the 
same  as  shown  in  Fig.  39,  a  portion  of  the  girder  being  cut 
•out  to  pass  the  connection  plate. 

The  position  of  the  columns  in  the  building  using  such 
joints  will  be  determined  in  a  great  measure  by  the  partitions, 
then  the  knee-braces  will  not  be  seen.  If  such  is  impossible, 
the  floor  brace  B  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  inside  splice 
plate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39,  be  adopted. 

All  connections  as  described 'are  to  be  riveted  at  the  works 
and  building  with  hot  wrought  iron  or  wrought  steel  rivets, 
thus  insuring  more  rigidity  against  wind  pressure  than  can  be 
obtained  with  bolt  connections. 

Rivet  Spacing  in  Column  Joints. — The  rivet  spacing  in 
all  the  above  details  is  determined  by  certain  fixed  laws. 
The  rivets  connecting  the  girders  with  the  columns  depend 
upon  the  load  to  be  supported.  For  example,  if  there  is  27 
tons  (54,000  Ibs.)  to  be  supported  at  one  end  of  a  floor  girder 
and  {"  diameter  rivets  are  used, — the  shearing  strain  being 
measured  on  the  area  of  the  cross-section  and  allowing  7500 
pounds  for  wrought  iron  and  steel  rivets, — the  area  of  a  rivet  -| 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  is  0.6013  square  inches.  This  multiplied 
by  7500  pounds,  the  safe  shearing,  =  4510  pounds,  the  safe 
amount  of  strain  each  rivet  can  sustain  without  shearing; 
dividing  54OC0t>y  this  we  get  12  rivets  to  support  the  girder. 

If  knee-braces  are  used,  a  portion  of  these  12  rivets  can  be 
counted  in  as  those  supporting  the  girder. 

The  rivets  in  the  column  are  generally  spaced  closer  at 
the  joints,  say  3  inches  for  f",  and  4  inches  for  J"  diameter 
rivets ;  for  the  body  of  the  column  they  should  be  spaced  at  a 
maximum  of  6  inches. 

If  there  is  more  than  one  cover  plate  over  f"  thick  each,. 


-62  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

-J"  in  diameter  rivets  should  be  used  ;  less  than  that,  use  }" 
rivets.  If  the  thickness  of  plates  and  angles  equals  3  inches, 
use  \"  diameter  rivets. 

The  rivets  in  the  splice  plates  are  determined  by  those  in 
the  column  ;  in  the  knee-braces  by  the  girder  and  column 
rivets. 

The  rivets  connecting '  the  angle-knees  of  the  top  and 
bottom  column  through  the  joint  plate  are  of  the  same  diam- 
eter as  the  rest  of  the  lower  column. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
FLOOR   LOADS   AND    FLOOR   FRAMING. 

EQUALLY  important  in  the  construction  of  the  skeleton! 
frame  as  the  columns  and  column  connections  is  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  floor  beams  and  floor  girders. 

Very  many  mistakes  are  undoubtedly  due  to  errors  in  the 
calculation  of  the  floor  loads. 

The  arrangements  must  be  such  that  the  material  is  used 
in  the  most  economical  manner ;  every  member  must  be  calcu- 
lated. There  must  be  sufficient  material,  no  more  nor  less  ;  for 
it  is  essential  not  only  from  economy,  but  also  to  reduce  the 
weights  of  the  dead  loads  on  the  foundations,  and  the  construc- 
tion should  be  as  light  as  consistent  with  perfect  stability. 

Dead  Loads. — All  materials  used  as  a  part  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  building  are  rated  as  dead  loads ;  that  is,  the  floor- 
beams,  girders,  arches,  columns,  walls,  flooring,  water  in  tanks,, 
machinery,  partitions,  plastering,  and  anything  actually  a  part 
of  the  building. 

Live  Loads. — The  weight  of  persons,  office  furniture,  or 
stores  of  any  kind  that  can  be  moved  or  changed  are  usually 
classed  as  live  loads. 

For  such  weights  as  is  usual  to  apply  to  the  floors,  the 
New  York  Building  Law  of  1892  is  a  good  guide  to  follow: 
"SEC.  483.  In  every  building  used  as  a  dwelling-house,  tenement- 
house,  apartment-house,  or  hotel,  each  floor  shall  be  of  sufficient 
strength  in  all  its  parts  to  bear  safely,  upon  every  superficial  foot 
of  its  surface,  70  pounds  ;  and  if  to  be  used  for  office  purposes 

63 


6  4  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

not  less  than  100  pounds  upon  every  superficial  foot ;  if  to  be 
used  as  a  place  of  public  assembly,  120  pounds;  and  if  used  as 
a  store,  factory,  warehouse,  or  for  any  other  manufacturing  or 
commercial  purpose,  150  pounds  and  upward  upon  every  super- 
ficial foot;  and  every  floor  shall  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  bear 
the  weight  to  be  imposed  thereon  in  addition  to  the  weight  of 
the  materials  of  which  the  floor  is  composed.  The  roofs  of  all 
buildings  shall  be  proportioned  to  bear  safely  50  pounds  upon 
every  superficial  foot  of  their  surface,  in  addition  to  the  weight 
of  materials  composing  the  same." 

In  several  buildings  used  as  offices  the  author  has  calculated 
the  dead  loads,  and  found  the  average  weight  to  be  100  pounds 
per  square  foot.  This  included  the  terra-cotta  arches  eight 
inches  in  depth,  sleepers,  wooden  floors,  beams,  girders,  parti- 
tions, and  plastering  on  partitions  and  ceiling  ;  the  last  two 
items  being  actually  calculated,  and  then  rated  so  much  per 
square  foot  of  floor  surface. 

The  usual  practice  in  New  York  is  to  make  the  upper  floors 
of  office  buildings  carry  the  minimum  weight,  70  or  75  pounds, 
as  required  by  the  New  York  Building  Law,  and  then  increase 
the  weight  upon  the  lower  floors,  say  from  75  pounds;  for  all 
stories  above  the  third,  to  150  pounds  upon  the  first  story  and 
basement. 

One  12-story  skeleton-constructed  building  in  particular  in 
New  York  the  live  load  upon  every  floor  excepting  the  roof 
has  a  calculated  area  of  350  pounds  per  square  foot.  The 
building  is  used  as  a  printing  establishment ;  it  is  therefore 
likely  that  every  floor,  or  portion,  will  at  some  time  or  other 
be  loaded  to  that  extent.  The  greatest  weight,  according  to 
the  dead  and  live  load  supported  by  the  lower  columns,  is 
800  tons. 

Chicago's  Practice  Relating  to  the  Calculations  of  the 
Dead  and  Live  Load  upon  the  Floors. — It  seems  to  be  the 
practice  in  Chicago's  high  buildings,  in  regard  to  the  floor 
loads,  to  calculate  all  the  beams  for  the  total  dead  and  live 


FLOOR  LOADS  AND   FLOOR   FRAMING.  65 

loads,  while  the  girders  are  required  to  carry  the  dead  load 
and  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  live  load,  and  the  columns  the 
dead  load  and  half,  or  even  less,  of  the  live  load. 

This  practice  is  based  on  the  theory  that  it  is  quite  possible 
the  beams  will  some  time  have  to  carry  all  the  live  load,  while 
the  chances  are  increasingly  less  that  the  girders  and  columns 
will  ever  be  required  to  do  so. 

Take,  for  example,  the  Venetian  Building,  Chicago.  The 
dead  weight  on  the  office  floors  is  100  pounds  per  square  foot; 
the  live  loads  on  the  floors  above  the  fourth  is  taken  at  35 
pounds  per  square  foot.  On  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
floors  it  is  taken  at  60  pounds,  and  on  the  first  floor  at  80 
pounds.  The  whole  of  the  dead  load  and  about  one  half  the 
live  load  is  carried  to  the  columns.  The  building  is  12  stories, 
the  greatest  load  on  the  lower  columns  being  about  327  tons. 

The  Fair  Building,  Chicago,  is  16  stories  in  height,  and  the 
beams  above  the  fifth  story  are  calculated  to  carry  75  pounds 
per  square  foot  of  live  load,  the  fifth  story  130  pounds,  the 
fourth  200  pounds,  and  all  below  the  fourth,  including  the  first 
story,  130  pounds. 

The  floor  beams  are  calculated  to  carry' all  the  dead  load 
plus  the  full  amount  of  the  live  load  designated  as  the  maxi- 
mum for  said  story. 

The  girders  are  calculated  to  carry  all  the  dead  load  plus 
90  per  cent,  of  the  live  load  designated  for  said  story. 

The  columns  are  calculated  to  carry  all  the  dead  loads  plus 
45  per  cent,  of  the  live  load  on  first  story,  and  increases  on  each 
story,  from  that  to  the  sixteenth  story,  where  it  is  90  per  cent. 
— an  average  of  about  64  per  cent,  throughout  the  building. 

It  would  be  good  practice  and  within  the  limit  of  safety  to 
have  for  each  story  : 

The  beams  sustain  dead  load  -f-  live  load. 

girders         "         "         "    +  85  per  cent,  of  live  load, 
columns      "         "         "    +75       "  "     "       " 


66  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Floor  Framing. — In  designing  the  floor  framing  of  a  build- 
ing the  beams  and  floor  girders  should  be  arranged  to  be 
strained  up  to  the  allowable  fibre  strain,  and  if  the  positions  of 
the  columns  were  fixed  according  to  this  arrangement,  much, 
economy  of  material  would  be  gained. 

The  proper  way  is  to  fix  upon  the  loads  which  the  floor- 
beams  must  carry  per  square  foot  of  floor  area;  that  is,  the 
dead  and  live  loads.  Then  the  spans  determined  by  the  loads, 
which  will  strain  the  beams  to  the  allowed  fibre  strain. 

Suppose,  for  example,  the  columns  in  the  side  walls  of  the 
skeleton  frame  are  spaced  20  feet  from  centre  to  centre,  and 
the  beams  5-feet  centres,  this  being  a  practicable  distance  for 
the  floor  arches,  and  an  equal  spacing  between  side  walls. 

The  dead  and  live  load  to  be  carried  by  the  beams  is  225, 
pounds  per  square  foot  of  floor  area. 

The  load  upon  the  beam  would  be  5  X  20  X  225  =  22,500 
pounds,  whose  coefficient  is  20  X  22,500  =  450,000  pounds. 

By  referring  to  the  table  of  properties  of  steel  beams, 
page  69,  the  coefficient  corresponding  to  this  would  be  a 
12"  X  40  pound  per  foot  I,  whose  coefficient  is  500,100.  This 
is  an  excess  of  strength,  and  if  12"  X  32  pounds  per  foot  I 
were  used,  whose  coefficient  is  395,000  pounds,  there  would  be 
too  little  strength. 

To  accommodate  this  gain  and  loss,  one  of  two  things  must 
be  done,  viz.,  the  column  centres  or  the  depth  of  beams  be 
changed. 

If  we  increase  the  column  centre  to  21  feet,  the  total  load; 
would  be  5  X  21  X  225  =  23,625,  and  the  coefficient  correspond- 
ing to  this  would  be  21  X  23,625  =496,125  pounds. 

If  a  deeper  beam  is  used,  say  a  15  X  41  pounds  per  foot  I, 
the  coefficient  by  the  table  is  603,200  pounds — a  still  greater 
excess  of  strength,  and  the  former  should  be  adopted. 

It  is  therefore  more  economical  to  space  the  columns  to 
accommodate  the  full  strength  of  the  beams. 

It  will  be  found  in  working  out  these  floor  beams  that  the- 


FLOOR   LOADS  AND  FLOOR  FRAMING.  67 

deeper  beam  is  more  economical  not  only  for  strength,  but 
for  stiffness.  If  thin  floors  are  not  required  deep  beams  should 
be  used  ;  then  the  arches  become  heavier,  the  filling  above  the 
arches  becomes  considerable,  and  if  this  is  of  concrete  the  dead 
load  will  have  to  be  increased. 

It  is  therefore  desirable  that  a  few  trials  be  given  to  this 
important  question  before  its  final  settlement. 

Rolled  solid  sections  should  be  used  in  preference  to  the 
built-up  girders,  for  these  section  beams  are  rolled  as  deep  as 
24  inches,  with  ^J-inch  flanges. 

In  the  skeleton  frame,  or  in  narrow  buildings,  the  girders 
generally  extend  parallel  with  the  narrow  front  and  the  beams 
at  right  angles. 

Having  determined  the  load  per  square  foot  to  be  sup, 
ported,  the  following  tables  will  aid  the  designer  in  the  con- 
truction  of  the  floors: 

To  Determine  Coefficient  for  Beams. — The  following 
formula  for  uniform  weights  gives  coefficient  for  12,000  pounds 
strain  : 

\WL  —  12,000-, 

e 

where  IV=  weight  in  pounds  uniformly  distributed 
L  =  length  in  inches; 
/  =  moment  of  inertia; 
e  =  distance  of  extreme  lamina  from  neutral  axis  (half 

the  depth  of  I-beam) ; 
C=  coefficient. 

WL  =  96,000^  ; 
or  if  L  be  given  in  feet  as  is  usual,  then 

WL  =  8000-  =  C. 

e 

EXAMPLE.  The  moment  of  inertia  of  a  1 5-inch  beam  50 
pounds  per  foot  =  522.6.  Distance  of  extreme  lamina,  7" '.5. 

c*22  6 

Coefficient  =  8000  X  - — —  =  5  5 7, 500. 


68 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


PROPERTIES    OF   WROUGHT-IRON    I    BEAMS. 


Depth 

of 
Beam. 

Weight 
per  ft. 

Area 
of 
Section. 

Thickness 
of 
Web. 

Width 
of 
Flange. 

Moment  of 
Inertia,  axis 
perpendicular 
to  web  at 
centre. 

I 
Coefficient, 
12,000  Ibs. 
strain. 

inches. 

Ibs. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

20 

90.7 

27.2 

.69 

6.75 

1650.3 

1,320,000 

20 

66.7 

2O.  O 

•50 

6.00 

1238.0 

990,000 

15 

80.0 

24.0 

.76 

6.08 

813-7 

868,000 

15 

66.7 

20.02 

•50 

6.00 

707.0 

748,000 

15 

6o.O 

18.0 

•57 

5-45 

625.5 

667,200 

15 

50.0 

15.0 

•49 

5-05 

522.6 

557<5oo 

*  I2£H. 

56.7 

16.77 

.60 

5-50 

391.2 

511,000 

12 

56.5 

17.0 

•78 

5-i6 

348.5 

464,800 

12 

42.0 

12.6 

•51 

4-63 

274-8 

366,400 

I2JL. 

41.7 

12.33 

•47 

4-79 

288.0 

377,000 

ioiH. 

45-o 

13-36 

•47 

5-00 

233-7 

356,000 

ioi 

40.0 

12.  0 

•55 

4.80 

2OI  .7 

307,200 

ioj[L. 

35-0 

10.44 

•38 

4.50 

185.6 

283,000 

ioi 

3i-5 

9  5 

.41 

4-53 

165.6 

251,200 

ioi  Ex.  L. 

30.0 

8.90 

•31 

4-50 

164.0 

250,000 

10 

42.0 

12.6 

•50 

4-75 

198.8 

318,100 

IO 

36.0 

10.8 

•44 

4-5O 

170.6 

273,000 

10 

30.0 

9.0 

•*37 

4-31 

145.8 

233-300 

9 

33-5 

11.  6 

.46 

4.71 

I5O.  I 

266,900 

9 

28.5 

9-6 

.40 

4.  16 

110.3 

196,000 

9 

23-5 

7-i 

•34 

3-96 

92-3 

164.000 

8 

34-o 

IO.2 

•50 

4-50 

IO2.O 

203,900 

8 

27.0 

S.i 

.41 

4.09 

82.5 

165,100 

8 

21-5 

6-5 

•33 

3-71 

66.2 

132,300 

7 

22.  0 

6.6 

.38 

3-82 

51-9 

1  1  8  ,  500 

7 

18.0 

5-4 

.26 

3-52 

44.2 

101,100 

6 

16.0 

4-8 

•25 

3-44 

29.0 

77,400 

6 

13-5 

4.1 

.24 

3-24 

24.4 

65,100 

5 

12.0 

3-6 

.28 

2.96 

14.4 

46,000 

5 

IO.O 

3-o 

•23 

2.85 

12.5 

40,000 

4 

7.0 

2.  I 

.18 

2.  5O 

5-7 

22.800 

4 

6.0 

1.8 

.18 

2.18 

4  6 

18,300 

3 

9.0 

2.7 

.40 

2.58 

3-5 

18,900 

3 

5-5 

i-7 

.16 

2.22 

2-5 

13,400 

To  find  the  safe  load  in  pounds  equally  distributed,  divide  the  coefficient  by 
the  span  in  feet.  To  find  the  safe  load  in  pounds,  weight  in  centre  of  span, 
divide  the  coefficient  by  the  span  in  feet,  and  take  one  half  the  quotient. 

Deflection.  —  To  find  the  deflection  of  beams  for  the 
above  distributed  loads,  divide  the  square  of  the  span  in  feet 
by  70  times  the  depth  of  beam  in  inches. 

*  Letters  designate  Heavy  and  Light  sections. 


FLOOR  LOADS  AND  FLOOR  FRAMING. 


69 


Coefficients  for  Steel    Beams. — If  L  be  given  in  feet, 
as  before  for  iron  beams,  but  using  16,000  pounds  strain,  then 

WL  =  10,666  r-  =  C. 

EXAMPLE.    The  moment   of   inertia  of  a  Q-inch   beam   27 
pounds  per  yard  is  110.6.     Distance  of  extreme  lamina,  4.5. 


Coefficient  —  10,666  X r~  =  262,200. 


PROPERTIES   OF   STEEL    I    BEAMS. 


Depth 
of 
Beam. 

Weight 
per  ft. 

Area 

of 
Section. 

Thickness 
of 
Web. 

Width 
,of 
Flange. 

Moment  of 
Inertia,  axis 
perpendicular 
to  web  at 
centre. 

Coefficient, 
16,000  Ibs. 
strain. 

inches. 

Ibs. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

24 

100 

30.0 

•75 

7.2O 

2322.3 

2,064,000 

24 

80 

23.2 

•50 

6-95 

2059-3 

1,830,500 

2O 

80 

23-5 

.60 

7.00 

1449.2 

1,545,600 

20 

64 

18.8 

•50 

6.25 

1146.0 

1.222.400 

15 

75 

22.  I 

.67 

6.3I 

757-7 

1,077,300 

15 

60 

I7.6 

•54 

6.04 

644  o 

916,300 

15 

50 

14.7 

•45 

5-75 

529-7 

753,300 

15 

4i 

12.0 

.40 

5-50 

424.1 

603,200 

12 

40 

II.7 

•39 

5-50 

281.3 

5OO,IOO 

12 

32 

9-4 

•35 

5-25 

222.3 

395-200 

10 

32 

9-7 

•37 

5.00 

161.3 

344,ooo 

IO 

25-5 

7-5 

•32 

4-75 

123.7 

26-3,800 

9 

27 

7-9 

•3i 

4-75 

no.  6 

262,200 

9 

21 

6.2 

•27 

4-50 

84-5 

199,900 

8 

22 

6.5 

.27 

-   4-50 

71.9 

191,600 

8 

18 

5-3 

•25 

4-25 

57-8 

154,000 

7 

20 

5-9 

•27 

4-25 

49-7 

151,400 

7 

15-5 

4.6 

•23 

4.00 

38.6 

117,600 

6 

16 

4-7 

.26 

3-63 

28.6 

101,800 

6 

13 

3-8 

•23 

3-50 

23  5 

83,500 

5 

-  o 

3-8 

.26 

3-13 

15-7 

67,000 

5 

IO 

3-0 

.22 

3-00 

12.4 

52,900 

4 

10 

2.9 

.24 

2-75 

7-7 

41,200 

4 

7-5 

2.0 

.20 

2.63 

5-9 

31,400 

To  find  the  safe  load  in  pounds  equally  distributed,  divide  the  coefficient  by 
the  span  in  feet.  To  find  the  safe  load  in  pounds,  with  weight  in  centre  of 
span,  divide  the  coefficient  by  the  span  in  feet,  and  take  one  half  the  quotient. 


pO  SKETETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Channels — are  placed   against  walls  in  place  of  I  beams 
to  receive  the  wall  arches. 


PROPERTIES  OF  WROUGHT-IRON  CHANNELS. 


Depth 
of 
Channel. 

Weight 
per  ft. 

Area 
of 
Section. 

Thickness 
of 
Web. 

Width 
of 
Flange. 

Moment  of 
Inertia,  axis  per- 
pendicular to 
web. 

Coefficient, 
12,000  Ibs. 
strain. 

inches. 

Ibs. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

15 

63-3 

18.85 

•75 

4-75 

586.0 

625,000 

15 

60 

18.00 

•93 

3-93 

473-1 

502,000 

15 

40 

12.00 

•50 

4.00 

376.0 

401,000 

I2i 

46.6 

14.10 

.68 

4.00 

291.6 

381,000 

12* 

23-3 

7-00 

•33 

3-00 

153-2 

2OI,IOO 

12 

50 

I5.OO 

•97 

3-23 

247.3 

329,600 

12 

30 

9.OO 

•47 

2-73 

175-3 

233,600 

12 

20 

6.00 

•32 

3-01 

120.2 

159,100 

IOJ 

20 

6.00 

•375 

2-75 

88.4 

134.750 

10 

35 

10.50 

•75 

2-95 

126-3 

202,400 

10 

20 

6.00 

•30 

2.50 

88.8 

142,409 

10 

16 

4.80 

•32 

2.51 

62.8 

100,800 

9 

23-3 

7.02 

•43 

3-125 

82.1 

146,000 

9 

30 

9.00 

•7i 

2.83 

87.8 

156,800 

9 

18 

5-40 

•3i 

2-43 

63-5 

113,600 

9 

16.6 

5.08 

•  33 

2-5 

58.8 

104,000 

8 

28 

8.40 

•76 

2.80 

63-9 

I28,OOO 

8 

15 

4.48 

.26 

2-5 

44-5 

88,950 

8 

ii 

3-30 

.20 

2.2 

32.9 

65,800 

7 

20 

8.40 

.76 

2.8 

63-9 

I28,OOO 

7 

12 

3.60 

•25 

2-5 

27.1 

62,000 

6 

16 

4.80 

•52 

2-34 

22.3 

59,600 

6 

II 

3.20 

.28 

2-25 

17.2 

45,700 

5 

14 

4.20 

•56 

2.24 

13.  10 

41,900 

5 

6 

i.  80 

•15 

•65 

7.16 

22,900 

4 

9 

2.70 

•39 

.89 

5-75 

23  ,  i  oo 

4 

5 

1.50 

•17 

•49 

3-69 

14,800 

3 

6 

i.  80 

•33 

•65 

2.22 

II,  800 

3 

5 

1-45 

.20 

•50 

2.0 

10,500 

To  find  the  safe  load  equally  distributed,  divide  the  coefficient  by  the  span 
in  feet.  For  a  safe  centre  load  take  one  half  the  quotient. 

NOTE. — Inasmuch  as  there  is  a  great  diversity  in  published  tables  of  safe 
load  for  beams,  etc.,  every  one  must  judge  for  himself  what  proportion  of  the 
elastic  strength  of  the  beam  will  best  suit  his  purpose. 


FLOOR  LOADS  AND  FLOOR  FRAMING. 


STEEL   CHANNELS. 


Depth 
of 
Channel. 

Weight 
per  ft. 

Area 
of 
Section. 

Thickness 
of 
Web. 

Width 
of 
Flange. 

Moment  of 
Inertia,  axis  per- 
pendicular 
to  web. 

Coefficient, 
16,000  Ibs. 
strain. 

inches. 

Ibs. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

15 

32.00 

9-4 

.40 

3-40 

284.5 

404,700 

15 

51  .00 

15-0 

•775 

3-76 

390-0 

554,700 

12 

20.00 

5-9 

•30 

2.90 

117.9 

209,600 

12 

30.25 

8.9 

-55 

3-15 

153-9 

273,600 

10 

15.25 

4-5 

.26 

2.66 

63.8 

136,100 

10 

23-75 

7.0 

-5i 

2.91 

84.6 

180,500 

12.75 

3-7 

.24 

2-44 

43-3 

IO2,7OO 

Q 

20.50 

6.0 

-49 

2.69 

58.5 

138,700 

8 

10.50 

3-o 

.22 

2.22 

28.2 

75,300 

8 

17-25 

5-o 

•47 

2.47 

38.9 

103.700 

7 

8.50 

2-5 

.20 

2.00 

17.4 

53-100 

7 

14.50 

4-3 

•  45 

2.25 

24.6 

75,000 

6 

7  oo 

2.1 

.19 

1.89 

ii.  i 

39-400 

6 

12.00 

3-6 

•  44 

2.14 

15.6 

55,400 

5 

6.00 

i-7 

.18 

I.78 

6-5 

27,900 

5 

10.25 

3-o 

•43 

2.03 

9.1 

39,000 

4 

5-oo 

1.4 

•17 

1.67 

3-5 

18,700 

4 

8.25 

2.4 

•  42 

1.92 

4.8 

25,700 

To  find  the  safe  load  equally  distributed,  divide  the  coefficient  by  the  span 
in  feet.     For  a  safe  centre  load  take  one  half  the  quotient. 

Limits  for  the  Safe  Load. — The  previous  tables  of  co- 
efficients are  to  be  used  for  the  greatest  safe  loads,  and  the 
beams  are  entirely  reliable  for  them  under  ordinary  conditions. 

The  character  of  the  load  must  be  considered,  and  the  mode 
of  application. 

The  loads  may  be  suddenly  applied,  and  the  beams  subject 
to  vibration,  or  they  may  be  of  considerable  length  without 
lateral  support. 

In  many  such  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  take  smaller  loads. 

Then  again,  if  the  beams  are  "  rigidly  secured ","  as  in  Fig.  40, 
with  heavy  knees  and  a  number  of  bolts,  a  proportionately 
larger  load  could  be  applied. 

The  following  limitations  will  be  proper  for  specified  con- 
ditions : 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


Character  of  Loading. 


Greatest  Safe  Load. 


Quiescent  loads,  subject  to  little  vibration,  as  in  ordi- 
nary floors,  etc.,  especially  where  beams  are  short, 

Fluctuating  loads,  causing  vibration,   especially  if  the 
beams  are  long  as  compared  to  their  depth. 

When   loads  are  suddenly  applied,  or  exposed  to  vibra- 
tion from  machinery  or  rapidly  moving  loads. 


As  in  tables. 


One  fifth  (i)  less  than 
tables. 

One  third  (£)  less  than 
tables. 


If  beams  are  supported  as  described  below,  the    greatest 
safe  loads  will  bear  the  given  ratios  to  the  above  tables  : 


Character  of  Beam. 


Fixed  at  one   end,  with    the  load   concentrated   at    the 
other  end. 

Fixed  at  one  end,  with  the  load  uniformly  distributed. 

Rigidly  fixed  at  both  ends,  with  the  load  in  the  middle 
of  beam. 

Rigidly   fixed    at    both    ends,  with  the  load   uniformly 
distributed. 


Continuous  beam,  loaded  in  middle. 
Continuous  beam,  load  uniformly  distributed. 


Greatest  Safe  Load. 


One  eighth  (i)  part  of 
that  found  by  tables. 

One  fourth  (£)  of  the 
tables. 

S.ime  as  found  by 
tables. 

One  and  one  half  (i|> 
times  that  found  by 
the  tables. 

Same  as  found  by  the 
tables. 

One  and  one  half  (i|) 
times  that  found  by 
the  tables. 


Beams  with  Fixed  Ends. — By  beams  "  rigidly  secured," 
as  denoted  by  the  above,  is  meant  that  the  beam  must  be 
securely  fastened  at  both  ends  by  being  connected  by  knees, 
or  so  firmly  secured  that  the  connection  will  not  be  severed  if 
the  beam  was  exposed  to  the  ultimate  load. 

In  this  case  the  beam  is  of  the  same  character  as  if  contin- 
uous over  several  supports,  or  as  if  consisting  of  two  cantilevers, 
the  space  between  whose  ends  are  spanned  by  a  separate  beam. 

Beam  Connections. — The  beams  and  their  spacing  having 
been  determined  upon,  the  next  but  not  least  important  ques- 


FLOOR  LOADS  AND  FLOOR  FRAMING. 


73 


tion  is  that  the  connections  are  sufficiently  strong  to  support 
the  beams  and  their  loads. 

This  is  determined  by  riveting  or  bolting  to  the  ends  of 
each  beam,  when  they  connect  with  each  other  or  to  the  girders, 
angle-knees  with  sufficient  rivets  or  bolts  to  resist  the  shear- 
ing strain.  The  shearing  strain  on  rivet  or  bolt  is  measured 
on  the  area  of  the  cross-section.  See  examples  on  the  follow- 
ing pages. 

The  following  size  angles  can  be  economically  used  for  all 
the  different  size  steel  beams  in  use,  providing  the  end  of  beam 
does  not  rest  upon  a  seat  riveted  to  the  girder.  Two  angles 
are  used  to  each  end. 


Size  of  Beam. 

Minimum 
Safe  Span 
in  Feet. 

Size  of  Angles  in  Inches. 

No.  of 
Rivets, 
J"  diam., 
in  each 
Leg 

20"  X  84    Ibs.  per  ft. 

I/O" 

4"  X  4"  X   I"  X  15"  long 

5 

20    X  64 

16  o 

«          <i           (i 

5 

15     X  75 

12    O 

6"  X  6"  X  TV  X  10" 

5 

15     X  60 

n    5 

«             ««                 « 

5 

15     X  50 

II     0 

«             «                « 

5 

15     X  41 

10   5 

«          «              ft 

5 

12     X  40 

85 

6"  X  6"  X  TV'  X  8" 

5 

12      X   32 

7    5 

"         "           " 

5 

10    X  33 

10   5 

6"  X  6"  X  tV'  X  6J" 

3 

10    X  25.5 

9   ° 

•  <               ««                   n 

3 

9    X  27 

9    5 

6"  X  6"  X  TV'  X  5" 

3 

9    X  21 

8   o 

«           «             « 

3 

8     X  22 

8   o 

«             «                (« 

3 

8     X  18 

7   o 

«             i(                (« 

3 

7    X  20 

6   o 

6"  X  6"  X  |"  X  5" 

3 

7    X  15-5 

5    5 

"         "           " 

3 

6    X  16 

6    5 

3i"  X  3V  X  f"  X  2f" 

i 

6    X  13 

6   o 

i 

To  get  the  full  strength  of  the  beams:  if  the  spans  are  in- 
creased the  number  of  rivets  would  decrease,  and  vice  versa. 

New  York  Building  Law  Relating  to  Beam  Connec- 
tions.— "  SEC.  484.  All  iron  or  steel  trimmer-beams,  headers, 
and  tail-beams  shall  be  suitably  framed  and  connected  together, 
and  the  iron  girders,  columns,  beams,  trusses,  and  all  other  iron- 
work of  all  floors  and  roofs  shall  be  strapped,  bolted,  anchored, 


74  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

and  connected  together  and  to  the  walls  in  a  strong  and  sub- 
stantial manner.  Where  beams  are  framed  into  headers,  the 
angles  which  are  bolted  to  the  tail-beams  shall  have  at  least  two 
bolts  for  all  beams  over  seven  inches  in  depth,  and  three  bolts 
for  all  beams  12  inches  and  over  in  depth,  and  these  bolts 
shall  not  be  less  than  J  inch  in  diameter. 

"  Each  one  of  such  angles  or  knees  when  bolted  to  girders 
shall  have  the  same  number  of  bolts  as  stated  for  the  other  leg. 

"  The  angle-iron  in  no  case  shall  be  less  in  thickness  than  the 
header  or  trimmer  to  which  it  is  bolted,  and  the  width  of  angle 
in  no*  cases  shall  be  less  than  one  third  the  depth  of  beam,  ex- 
cepting that  no  angle-knee  shall  be  less  than  2^  inches  wide, 
nor  required  to  be  more  than  6  inches  wide. 

"  All  wrought-iron  or  rolled-steel  beams  8  inches  deep  and 
under  shall  have  bearings  equal  to  their  depth  if  resting  on  a 
wall ;  9  to  \2-incJi  beams  shall  have  a  bearing  of  10  incites,  and 
all  beams  more  than  12  inches  in  depth  shall  have  bearings  of 
not  less  than  12  inches  if  resting  on  a  wall. 

"  Where  beams  rest  on  iron  supports  and  are  properly  tied 
to  the  same,  no  greater  bearings  shall  be  required  than  \  the 
depth  of  the  beams. 

"  Iron  or  steel  floor  beams  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  spacing 
and  length  of  beams  that  the  load  to  be  supported  by  them, 
together  with  the  weight  of  the  materials  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  said  floors,  shall  not  cause  a  deflection  of  the  said 
beams  of  more  than  ^  of  an  inch  per  lineal  foot  of  span  ;  and 
they  shall  be  tied  together  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  8 
times  the  depth  of  the  beam." 

In  comparing  the  strength  of  the  beams  with  the  number 
of  bolts  required,  we  will  be  able  to  determine  at  what  span  the 
above  law  would  apply.  We  will  take  the  smallest  number  of 
bolts  and  the  largest  beam  allowed  for  that  number,  which  will 
be  a  10  X  32  Ibs.  per  foot  I. 

We  first  determine  the  value  of  the  f-inch  bolts  in  each  end 
of  the  beam,  being  four  in  number,  two  for  each  end. 


FLOOR   LOADS  AND  FLOOR  FRAMING.  ?$ 

The  greatest  safe  shear  allowed  upon  bolts  and  rivets  by 
the  New  York  Building  Law  is  9000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

The  area  of  a  f  inch  bolt  =  .4418  square  inches;  this  mul- 
tiplied by  9000  =  3972  Ibs.,  the  safe  shear  each  bolt  would  sus- 
tain in  single  shear,  being  in  double  shear  twice  the  value,  or 
2  X  39/6  —  7952  pounds.  Multiplying  this  by  the  whole  num- 
ber of  bolts  in  each  end  equal  7952  X  4  =  31,808  Ibs.,  the 
entire  strength  of  the  bolts  in  the  beam. 

By  referring  to  the  table  of  steel  beams  the  coefficient  of  a 
IO  X  32  Ibs.  per  foot  I  —  344,000;  this  divided  by  31,808  =  10.8, 
the  least  span  in  feet  to  which  the  beam  could  be  used  to  make 
the  strength  of  beam  and  connection  equal. 

If  the  above  beam  is  used  over  a  larger  span  the  connection 
will  require  less  bolts  and  vice  versa. 

Suppose  we  now  try  the  15"  X  60  Ibs.  per  foot  I,  in  which  3 
bolts  are  required,  and  determine  the  span  we  could  use  the 
number  of  bolts  designated. 

The  safe  shearing  value  of  the  bolts,  3  in  each  end,  would 
be  6  bolts  X  7952  —  47,712  Ibs.,  the  entire  strength  of  the 
bolts. 

Then,  by  the   same  table,  the   coefficient   of  the   beam   is 

916,300;  this  divided  by  : =  18.1  ft.,  the  least  span  in 

which  the  beam  could  be  used  to  make  the  strength  of  beam 
and  connection  equal. 

The  legs  of  the  angles  against  the  header,  girder,  or  beam  to 
which  the  framed  beam  is  secured  should  have  twice  the  num- 
ber of  bolts  ;  that  is,  the  bolts  in  these  legs  are  in  single  shear, 
they  therefore  require  the  above  number. 

Of  the-  different  beams  and  their  connections  used  in  the 
floor  framing,  those  shown  in  Fig.  40*2  seem  to  cover  this  num- 
ber; 20-inch  beams  being  used  mostly  for  girders,  they  are  not 
shown  in  the  figure.  The  1 5-inch  beams  have  6  bolts  £  inch 
in  diameter  at  each  end,  or  equal  to  12  in  the  entire  beam  ; 
then  12  X  7952  =  95,424  Ibs.  The  coefficient  916,300  divided 


70  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

by  95,424  =  9.6  feet.     The   1 2-inch  beams,  40  Ibs.  per  foot, 
have  10  bolts  in  all ;  then  10  X  7952  =  79,520  Ibs.     The  coef- 


FIG.  400. 

ficient  500,100  divided  by  79,520  =  6.2  feet.     Continue  in  like 
manner  with  the  other  sizes. 


FLOOR  LOADS  AND   FLOOR   FRAMING. 


77 


Floor  Arches. — The  common  mode  of  filling-in  between 
the  beams  of  a  floor  was  the  brick  arch  ;  but  this  is  largely  out 
of  use,  and  in  its  place  a  cheap  material  is  now  extensively 
used,  which  consists  principally  of  burnt  fire-clay,  and  among 
the  many  qualities  possessed  by  the  hollow  fire-clay  blocks  is 
their  special  application  to  fire-proof  floors. 

1.  They  are  absolutely  fire-proof,  having   been  submitted 
during  their  course  of  manufacture  to  a  white  heat. 

2.  They  are  water-proof,  and  can  be  erected  as  fast  as  the 
walls  will  admit  of  the  beams  being  set.     In  case  of  an  incipient 
fire,  water  poured  on  the  floors  can  have  no  bad  effect  to  their 
solidity. 

3.  They  offer  a  flat  surface  on  the  bottom  and  top  after 
they  are  laid,  thereby  giving  a  flat  ceiling  for  plastering  and  a 
flat  surface  for  floor-sleepers  and  filling. 

4.  They  are  much  lighter  than  the  old  solid  brick  arch,  and 
are  free  from  shrinkage. 

5.  They  can  be  made  any  depth  and  accommodated  to  large 
and  small  spans. 

WEIGHT   AND   SAFE   SPANS    FOR    HOLLOW   FIRE    BLOCKS. 


Width  of  Span. 

Depth  of 
Arch. 

Weight 
per  Sq.  Ft. 

Safe  Load  in 
Lbs.  perSq.  Ft. 

3  ft.  6  in.  to  4  ft  
4  ft.  to  4  ft.  6  in.  .  .  . 
4  ft  6  in  to  5  ft 

6  in. 

8   ' 

29  Ibs. 

33    ' 

nj      « 

,OOO 
,200 
.100 

5  ft  6  in  to  6  ft  .... 

94 

4O      ' 

COO 

6  ft.  o  in.  to  6  ft.  6  in.  .  .  . 
6  ft.  6  in.  to  7  ft.  6  in.  ... 

10  ' 

12    ' 

43    ' 

48    • 

,500 
,800 

The  6-inch  block  to  be  used  for  light  purposes,  8-inch  for 
office  buildings,  ro-inch  for  theatres,  and  the  1 2-inch  for  ware- 
houses. 

The  manner  of  applying  hollow  blocks  is  shown  in  Fig.  41. 
Those  adjoining  the  beam  are  called  skew  backs,  and  made  with 
a  shoulder  formed  to  fit  the  flange,  and  extend  £  to  if  inches 
below,  completely  covering  the  beam,  as  at  Fig.  6.  The  centre 


t 
78  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

block  is  the  key,  and  the  intermediate  blocks  are  so  placed, 
when  laid  in  cement,  that  they  form  a  complete  arch.  All  are 
dove-tailed  to  receive  the  plastering,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

Brick  Arches. — Brick  arches  properly  built  between  the 
beams  are  practically  indestructible  from  any  usage  that  would 
occur  in  a  building. 

That  brick  arches  will  endure  considerably  more  than  the 
beams  would  sustain  was  shown  by  the  loading  of  an  arched 
floor  at  the  Watertown  Arsenal,  Mass. 

"  A  floor  29  ft.  square  was  composed  of  five  1 5-inch  I-beams, 
200  Ibs.  per  yard,  carrying  brick  arches. 

"  The  beams  were  7  ft,  4.8  in.  apart  on  centres,  and  rested 
on  brick  walls  28  ft.  6  in.  apart.  The  size  of  the  brick  arches 
was  8J-  in.  in  the  7  ft.  4.8  in.  span.  Soft-burned  bricks  were 
used,  laid  on  edge  with  lime  mortar.  The  arches  were  backed 
or  levelled  on  top  with  concrete  and  planked  over.  The  maxi- 
mum load  carried  by  the  floor  was  563  Ibs.  per  square  foot,  and 
the  beams  failed  and  not  the  arches.  This  load  caused  a  con- 
tinuous yielding  of  the  beams,  which  was  allowed  to  continue. 
All  the  floor  was  deflected  a  distance  of  13.07  in.,  measured  at 
the  centre  of  the  middle  beams.  The  brick-work  endured  this 
great  deflection,  and  apparently  would  have  stood  much  more 
without  failure. 

Porous  Terra-cotta  Arches  is  a  mixture  of  clay  and  saw- 
dust, or  any  other  combustible  matter  may  be  substituted,  such 
as  shavings,  tanbark,  and  charcoal.  After  the  compound  is 
properly  mixed  the  blocks  are  moulded,  and,  when  sufficiently 
dry,  placed  in  a  kiln  prepared  for  the  purpose  and  subjected  to 
a  great  heat  adequate  to  consume  all  the  combustible  matter, 
leaving  the  blocks  porous. 

For  hanging  ceilings,  etc.,  these  blocks  are  mace  in  different 
sizes.  The  T's  are  spaced  about  25  in.  centres  ;  then  the  blocks, 
24  in.  wide,  are  set  in  place  with  cement,  as  shown  in  Figs.  I 
and  2. 

Fig.  4  is  a  column  protected  by  a  casing  of  ribbed  blocks 


FLOOR  LOADS  AND  FLOOR   FRAMING. 


79 


with  an  air  space  between.     The  blocks  are  dovetailed  on  the 
outside  for  holding  the  plastering  and  set  with  cement,  and 


-ROOFS  AND  HANGING  CElUNGg- 


HOLLOW  BLOCKS  ASTLAIARCHES     r,KE  PROOFING  COLUMNS 

I 
-— 


firmly  secured  with  copper  wire  bound  on  the  outside.  Square 
cast  iron,  wrought,  or  steel  columns  are  made  fire-proof  in 
various  ways  by  the  terra-cotta  blocks. 


8O 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


WEIGHT   OF   POROUS   TERRA-COTTA    FOR   FURRING,  ROOFING, 

AND    CEILING. 

Hollow  clay  furring  ................  2  in.  thick  12  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft. 

Porous  terra-cotta  furring  ...........   2      "  8        " 

"          "         ."     roofing  ..........   2      "  12        "  " 

..........  3     "  16 

"          "         "     ceiling  ...........   2      "  II        "  " 

«  «  ««  «  o          «  j-  «  « 

WEIGHT   OF    HOLLOW    BURNT    CLAY   AND  POROUS   TERRA- 
COTTA    PARTITIONS. 


HOLLOW  CLAY. 

3  in.  thick 14  Ibs.  per  sq..  ft. 

4  "         ....   18*      " 

5  "         23 

6  "        ....  25 

7  "         ....  31        " 

8  ««         ....34        " 


POROUS  TERRA-COTTA. 

3  in.  thick. ...   12  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft. 

4  "         ....   17        " 

5  "         ....23        " 

6  "         27 

7  "         ....  31         " 

8  "         36        "  " 


Concrete  Arches. — Concrete  arches  are  composed  of 
broken  stone,  fragments  of  brick,  pottery,  and  gravel,  held  to- 
gether by  being  mixed  with  lime,  cement,  asphaltum,  or  other 
binding  surfaces. 

Mr.  E.  L.  Ransome,*  a  successful  worker  of  concrete  in 
San  Francisco,  conceived  the  idea  of  using  square  bars  of  iron 
and  steel,  twisted  the  entire  length,  in  place  of  flat  bars  and 
wires,  as  had  been  used  by  other  experimenters  on  the  subject. 
It  was  found  that  these  bars  were  held  in  the  concrete  equally 
as  well  if  not  better  than  the  others,  and  that  they  were  much 
less  expensive.  The  sizes  used  ranged  from  J  in.  to  2  in.  square. 

A  section  of  a  flat  floor  in  the  California  Academy  of 
Science,  15  X  22  ft,,  was  tested  in  1890  with  a  uniform  load  of 
415  Ibs.  per  square  foot,  and  the  load  left  on  for  one  month. 
The  deflection  at  the  centre  of  the  22-ft.  space  was  only  -J  in. 
It  was  estimated  by  the  architects  that  the  saving  in  this  con- 
struction over  the  ordinary  use  of  steel  beams  and  hollow  fire- 


*  Kidder's  "Architects'  Pocket  Book." 


FLOOR   LOADS  AND  FLOOR   FRAMING. 


81 


blocks  of  the  same  strength,  and  with  similar  cement-finished 
floors  on  top,  amounted  to  50  cents  per  square  foot  of  floor. 

Corrugated  Arches  or  Flooring. — The  trough-shaped 
sections,  known  as  Pencoyd  corrugated  flooring,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  42,  are  now  successfully  used  in  the  floors  of  buildings  as 
well  as  bridges.  The  smaller  section  A  is  generally  applied  to 
buildings,  B  to  bridges. 

LOADS  IN  LBS.  PER  SQUARE  FOOT  WHICH  CAUSE  A  DEFLECTION 
EQUAL  TO  5^  OF  THE  SPAN,     TABLE  FOR   "A"  SECTION. 


Weight  of  Ma- 
terial per  Sq.  Ft. 

Span  in  Feet. 

Iron.     J    Steel. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

IO 

ii 

12 

13 

14 

15 

M-5 

14.8 

2,460 

1,400 

900 

600 

420 

300 

230 

I  80 

140 

no 

90 

IS.O 

18.4 

3,000 

i,750 

1,100 

740 

520 

380 

290 

220 

170 

140 

110 

21-5 

21.9 

3,600 

2,120 

1,300 

900 

630 

460 

340 

25O 

2IO 

170 

130 

25.0 

25-5 

4,200 

2,500 

i,57o 

1,050 

740 

540,  400 

310 

240 

2OO 

1  6O 

28.5 

2Q.I 

4,800 

2,850 

i,  800 

I,2CO 

850 

620 

460 

360 

280 

220 

ISO 

Figs,  i  and  2  show  the  manner  of  supporting  the  flooring ; 
Fig.  I  has  wooden  sleepers  filled  in  between  with  ashes  or  con- 
crete ;  this  filling  completely  deadens  the  floor.  In  Fig.  2  the 
wooden  flooring  rests  directly  upon  the  iron-work. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  at  least  3  or  4  inches  from  the 
top  of  the  girder  beams  to  the  finished  floor,  to  allow  some 
space  between  the  wooden  flooring  and  girders  for  the  passing 
of  pipes. 

In  Fig.  43  is  another  method  of  forming  an  arch  between 
I-beams.  At  A,  B  is  the  depth  of  the  corrugation  ;  A  is  the 
width,  which  varies  from  2  to  5  in. ;  B  represents  the  applica- 
tion between  the  I-beams. 

The  Gustavino  Tile  Arch. — Within  a  few  years  a  method 
of  constructing  floor  arches  by  means  of  thin  tile,  cemented 
together  so  as  to  make  one  solid  mass,  has  been  introduced. 
The  floors  are  constructed  by  covering  the  space  between  the 
girders  by  a  single  vault  of  tile  6"  X  8"  X  i"  thick,  cemented 
together  in  three  or  more  thicknesses,  depending  upon  the  size 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
'ARTMENT  OF  'CIVIL  ENGINEER  . 


82 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


of  the  arch.  The  thickness  is  generally  increased  at  the 
haunches.  The  strength  of  these  floors,  considering  their 
thickness,  appears  remarkable. 

The  system  is  employed  in  a  number  of  buildings  in  New 
York   and    Boston,  and   seems   to   be  very  desirable   among 


FIG.  42. 


FIG.  43. 


architects  for  vaulted  ceilings  for  decoration  purposes,  as  the 
vault  can  be  made  the  size  of  the  room. 

Tie  Rods. — The  horizontal  thrust  of  arches  is  provided  for 
by  the  use  of  tie-rods  from  f  to  -J  inches  in  diameter ;  f  of  an 
inch  are  more  frequently  used,  spaced  from  4  to  6  ft.  apart  in 
the  centre  of  the  depth  of  the  beams.  The  thrust  of  brick 
arches  per  lineal  foot  can  be  found  by  the  formula 


T  = 


R 


FLOOR  LOADS  AND   FLOOR   FRAMING.  83 

in  which  W  is  equal  to  the  load  per  square  foot,  R  —  the  rise 
of  the  arch  in  inches,  and  L  =  the  span  in  feet. 

EXAMPLE. — The  beams  supporting  an  arched  brick  floor  are 
.4  feet  apart,  and  the  rise  of  the  arches  is  4  inches. 

The  total  dead  load  of  floor  and  live  load  equal  150  Ibs.  per 
square  foot.  Then, 

1.5  X  150  X  16 

—  900  Ibs.  pressure  per  lineal  foot  of  arch. 

If  J-inch  diameter  rods  are  used  which  have  an  effective  section 
of  .420  square  inches,  then  .42  X  15,000  (the  greatest  stress  al- 
lowed on  rods)  =  6300  Ibs.,  which  is  the  greatest  load  the  rod 
should  be  allowed  to  sustain,  and  &/££-  =  /  feet  =  greatest 
distance  apart  of  the  tie  rods. 

This  same  calculation  can  be  applied  to  flat  arches,  taking 
one  half  of  the  depth  of  the  arch  for  the  rise ;  in  an  8-inch  arch 
4  inches  equal  the  rise. 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE 
BUILDING,  N.  Y. 

THE  new  building  for  the  Home 
Life  Insurance  Company,  as  designed 
by  N.  Le  Brun  &  Sons,  Architects,  is 
situated  at  Nos.  256  and  258  Broad- 
way, opposite  the  City  Hall  Park,  on  a 
plot  of  ground  55  feet  6  in.  by  109  feet. 

The  construction  is  entirely  fire- 
proof and  of  the  composite  description, 
as  provided  for  in  the  New  York 
Building  Law,  passed  April,  1892. 

The  constructive  metal  work  is  of 
wrought  steel  throughout,  and  with 
rare  exceptions  the  various  members 
are  riveted  together.  The  connections 
are  designed  with  particular  reference 
to  the  lateral  stresses  incidental  to 
such  a  tall  and  narrow  structure.  As 
far  as  possible  the  constructive  metal 
work  is  protected  by  terra-cotta  or 
other  fireproof  material. 

The  front  is  built  of  white  Tucka^ 
hoe  marble,  and  is  designed  in  the 
early  Italian  Renaissance  style  ;  elabo- 
rately decorated  at  the  base  with 

FIG.    4S-  — HoME    LlFE    IN-  delicate   carving,  of    simple   finish   in 
SURANCE  BUILDING.    FRONT  ...     . 

ELEVATION.  the  middle  portion,  while  it  terminates 


•  i:|l|:|:|l|:|:|l|:i  A 

I'illli'illliilllrii 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.  85 

at  the  top  with  a  boldly  broken  and  picturesque  outline.  The 
height  from  the  curb  to  the  top  of  the  marble  pinnacle  over 
the  centre  is  214  feet,  while  at  the  top  of  the  spire  it  is  257 
feet. 

The  marble  of  the  front  extends  through  the  full  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  from  base  to  cornice. 

Below  the  sidewalk  there  are  two  stories,  in  the  lowermost 
of  which  is  situated  all  the  machinery  of  the  building  for 
running  the  three  elevators,  the  dynamos,  the  fans  for  ven- 
tilation, etc. 

The  company  occupies  several  floors,  and  have  their  main 
office  in  the  second  story.  The  balance  of  the  building  is 
designed  for  renting.  The  same  substantial  character  which 
distinguishes  the  constructive  portions  of  the  building  has  been 
continued  in  the  balance  of  the  work. 

The  stairs  and  elevator  screens  are  of  cast-iron,  wrought- 
iron,  and  marble,  designed  in  the  "same  period  of  renaissance  as 
the  front.  Much  of  this  ornamental  iron-work  is  electro-plated. 
The  finish  of  the  office  floors  are  comparatively  plain,  but  the 
office  of  the  company  and  the  main  entrance  hall  are  profusely 
decorated  with  relief  ornaments. 

The  building  was  at  first  constructed  upon  a  plot  30  feet 
6  inches  wide  by  107  feet  deep  (see  Figs.  47,  48,  and  51);  seven 
tiers  of  beams  were  set  when  it  was  decided  to  increase  the 
size  of  the  building  by  the  purchase  of  the  adjoining  property, 
while  another  story  was  added  to  the  original  height  (compare 
elevation,  Fig.  45,  with  the  transverse  section  Fig.  51  and  the 
longitudinal  section,  Fig.  52). 

The  wall  between  the  row  of  columns  on  the  right  was  dis- 
pensed with  and  two  columns  placed  each  side  of  the  centre,  as 
shown  on  the  beam  plan,  Fig.  46,  in  place  of  the  right  F 
column,  which  was  transferred  to  the  same  position  to  the  right 
of  the  increased  lot  as  it  previously  occupied  in  the  smaller 
lot. 

A  duplicate  of  the  original  plan  (Fig.  47)  was  adopted  in 


36  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

the  added  area,  with  the  exception  that  a  large  light  court  is 
placed  in  the  centre,  directly  to  the  right  or  back  of  the  eleva- 
tors and  shown  on  the  beam  plan,  Fig.  46. 

Beam  Plan. — In  arranging  the  beams  upon  the  plan, 
economy  of  material  has  been  strictly  observed.  The  calcu- 
lated weight,  including  dead  and  live  load,  is  175  Ibs.  per  square 
foot  of  surface  throughout  the  different  floors,  which  includes 
a  certain  percentage  for  partitions,  plastering,  floor  blocks, 
wooden  flooring,  tiling,  etc. 

The  steel  beams  are  spaced  about  5  feet  from  centre  to 
centre. 

The  three  spans  between  columns  marked  F  and  B  and  the 
span  between  C  and  R  are  9  inch  by  70  Ibs.  and  9  inch  85  Ibs. 
per  yard. 

The  span  between  B  and  C  are  12"  X  125  Ibs.  per  yard, 
while  the  largest  span  between  B  columns  have  15  X  123  Ibs. 
per  yard  beams,  and  9"  beams  rest  upon  the  top  at  right  angles 
to  the  same  and  support  the  cast-iron  mullions  of  the  left 
light-court. 

The  double  beam  girders  supporting  the  curtain-walls  be- 
tween columns  F  and  B,  C  and  R  are  10"  X  90  Ibs.  per  yard; 
between  columns  B  a  lattice  girder ;  between  columns  B  and 
C,  12"  X  125  Ibs.  per  yard. 

The  F  and  A,  A  and  A  columns  are  spaced  13'  centres;  A 
and£,  1 3' 9";  BandB,  22' ;  B  and  £  19' 4"  J  C  and  Ft  15'  f". 

In  connecting  the  columns  to  each  other  and  to  the  floor 
girders,  knee-braces  of  plates  and  angles  are  extensively  used. 
These  braces  are  placed  in  the  north  and  south  wall  column 
and  made  3  and  4  feet  in  length,  and  reduced  from  that  length 
to  1 8  inches  in  the  top  story  (see  section,  Fig.  50). 

Floor  Plan. — The  plan  as  shown  at  Fig.  47  describes  in 
itself  the  area  of  the  building  as  originally  designed,  divided 
to  the  best  advantage  into  offices,  halls,  stairways,  elevators, 
and  light-courts  ;  and,  as  previously  mentioned,  almost  a  dupli- 
cate of  this  plan  was  arranged  in  the  additional  25  feet  of 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y. 


width.     The  wall  at  the  right  of  building  shown  on  the  same 
plan  was  omitted. 


3 


fflj 


:H 


FIG.  46. — BEAM  PLAN  OF  UPPER  STORIES. 

The  front  offices  face  Broadway;  the  inside  offices  are  light 
through  the  light-courts,  which  extend  from  the  lower  floors  to 


88 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


•ffi 


A 


FIG.  47.— FLOOR  PLAN  AS  ORIGINALLY       FIG.  48.— BEAM  PLAN  AS  ORIGINALLY 
STARTED.  STARTED. 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    F.  89 

•the  roof.  The  walls  enclosing  the  courts  are  built  in  between 
»cast-iron  mullions  with  flat  moulded  cast-iron  cornices,  and  faced 
with  white  enamelled  brick,  the  entire  thickness  being  but  12 
unches  on  all  stories.  The  adjoining  building  on  the  left  or 
south  side  has  a  corresponding  light  court,  and  the  combined 
areas  admit  of  so  much  light  that  these  inner  offices  are  equally 
as  well  light  as  those  facing  the  street. 

This  plan  shows  a  toilet-room  in  the  rear  of  the  building, 
but  occurs  only  on  a  few  stories ;  in  the  majority  of  the  floors 
this  space  is  utilized  as  an  office. 

The  hall  is  also  well-light  as  can  be  readily  perceived,  the 
partitions  enclosing  the  same  being  punctured  by  windows  to 
a  considerable  extent,  and  further  light  by  a  roof  skylight  and 
the  large  light  court  at  rear  of  elevators. 

Curtain  Walls. — The  side  walls  of  the  lower  stories  are  as 
follows :  Cellar,  2  ft.  4  in.  thick ;  basement,  2  ft.  4  in. ;  first 
story,  24  in. ;  second  story,  24  in. ;  third  to  sixth,  20  in. ;  sixth 
'to  tenth,  16  in. ;  the  stories  above  the  tenth  are  enclosed  with 
.a  lu-in.  wall,  supported  upon  double  beam  girders,  as  previously 
•described.  The  columns  of  the  south  wall  are  encased  on  the 
outside  by  4  in.  of  this  curtain  wall,  extending  from  the  base  to 
the  roof.  The  north  wall  columns  are  placed  8  in.  from  the 
party  wall,  and  faced  on  the  inside  by  fireproof  blocks,  thus 
ensuring  a  complete  covering  in  case  of  fire.  The  rear  wall  of 
building  as  well  as  the  light-courts  are  shown  in  part  elevation, 
.plan  and  section  at  Fig.  49.  This  wall  is  12  in.  thick,  built  in 
•as  shown,  supported  its  entire  width  by  the  plate  girders  be- 
tween the  R  columns,  as  shown  in  the  section.  The  cornice 
above  the  windows  is  first  set  in  place  ;  then  the  wall  is  built, 
and  the  cast-iron  window-sill  set.  The  mullions  on  the  side 
nearest  the  columns  are  built  in  with  the  brick-work;  the  inside 
mullions  are  secured  top  and  bottom  to  the  bottom  and  top  of 
plate  girder.  The  entire  combination  is  so  constructed  as  to 
give  to  the  outside  an  appearance  of  solidity,  yet  it  takes  but 
little  area  from  the  lot. 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


This  figure  also  shows  the  connection  of  the  R  columns  with 
the  girder  in  such  a  manner  that  the  column  joint  is  per- 
fectly rigid  without  the  use  of  the  knee-braces,  by  referring  to 
the  elevation  of  column,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  joint  is  in  the 


FIG.  49. — SECTION  AND  PART  ELEVATION  OF  REAR  AND  NORTH  COURT 
WALLS  SHOWING  MULLIONS  AND  FASCIAS. 

centre  of  the  girder ;  the  girder  being  4  feet  high,  the  columns, 
are  practically  stronger  at  the  joint  than  at  the  body. 

Columns  and  Girders. — The  materials  for  the  columns  and 
girders  for  this  building  are  fully  described,  in  the  tables,  with 
the  height  of  stories  and  loads  to  be  supported,  and  need  but 
little  description  here;  but  it  will  be  noticed  that  but  few 
columns  are  required  in  the  height  of  the  entire  structure  (see 
Transverse  Section,  Fig.  51).  This  is  not  only  an  advantage  in 
setting,  etc.,  but  also  gives  great  rigidity  to  the  frame,  so  that 
the  danger  of  any  movement  of  tops  of  columns  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum. 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y. 


50.— TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  NORTH  WALL  MASONRY,  ELEVATION  OP 
SOUTH  WALL  COLUMNS  AND  FLOOR  GIRDERS. 


92  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

STEEL  COLUMNS  HOME  LIFE  BUILDING. 
COLUMNS  MARKED  "A." 


Length. 

Outside  Plates. 

Webs. 

Angles. 

Load. 

Feet. 

In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

Tons. 

Basement 

IO 

O 

4 

20X| 

12  X  f 

4 

6X4X| 

503 

ist  story 

19 

9 

4 

•  ' 

'• 

4 

" 

460.00 

2d       " 

25 

6 

4 

" 

'  ' 

4 

" 

415.28 

3d       " 

13 

6 

4 

" 

4< 

4 

•' 

385.92 

4th      «• 

12 

9 

I  2 

2oXf 

4 
4 

' 

357.63 

5th      " 

12 

3 

la 

i6xf 
i6Xi 

12  X| 

4 
4 

< 
« 

318.82 

6th      " 

12 

5 

2 

I6X| 

(( 

4 

' 

277.61 

7th      " 

II 

6 

\l 

14  Xft 

i. 

4 
4 

!! 

239.48 

8th     " 

II 

6 

2 

" 

10  XI 

4 

5X3lXl 

202.35 

9th      « 

II 

6 

2 

14  x  A 

" 

4 

" 

161.52 

loth    " 

II 

6 

2 

12  xi 

8X1 

4 

" 

134.60 

nth    " 

II 

6 

2 

" 

" 

4 

11 

104.00 

I2th    " 

II 

6 

2 

" 

" 

4 

«  t 

74.38 

I3th    " 

13 

0 

2 

" 

" 

4 

" 

45.87 

I4th    " 

II 

9 

2 

4 

17 

COLUMNS  MARKED  "  B." 


(    2 

20Xf 

Basement 

IO 

O 

)    4 

20XH 

i 

12  Xf 

4 

6X4Xf 

744-50 

(     2 

20Xf 

ist  story 

19 

9 

2 

20X| 

i 

" 

4 

" 

682.50 

•    2d      " 

25 

o 

j      2 

20Xf 
20X| 

i 

" 

4 

" 

617.50 

3d      " 

13 

0 

6 

20X| 

i 

" 

4 

" 

579.00 

4th     <f 

12 

9 

6 

" 

i 

" 

4 

" 

532.oo 

5th     " 

12 

3 

6 

" 

i 

" 

4 

" 

477-00 

6th     " 

12 

5 

4 

" 

i 

11 

4 

« 

413-50 

7th     " 

II 

6 

j    4 

(    4 

i6X| 

i 

I9XI 

4 

5X31X1 

356.50 

8th     " 

II 

6 

i    2 
^    4 

i6Xf 

i 

« 

4 

ii 

304.00 

9th     " 

II 

6 

4 

i6Xl 

i 

« 

4 

« 

244.00 

loth     " 

II 

6 

4 

«« 

i 

8  XI 

4 

ii 

201.00 

nth     " 

II 

6 

4 

" 

i 

" 

4 

" 

155.00 

i2th     " 

II 

6 

2 

" 

i 

" 

4 

" 

1  1  1.  00 

I3th     " 

13 

o 

2 

" 

i 

" 

4 

" 

68.25 

I4th     " 

II 

9 

2 

i 

4 

30.30 

THE   HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE   BUILDING,  N.    Y.  93 

STEEL  COLUMNS  HOME  LIFE  BUILDING. 
COLUMNS  MARKED  C. 


Length. 

Outside  Plates. 

Webs. 

Angles. 

Load. 

Feet. 

In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

No. 

Size  in  Inches. 

Tons. 

Basement 

IO 

O 

I! 

20  X  f 
20  Xf 

I 

12  X  f 

4 

6X4  X  f 

577-57 

ist  story 

19 

9 

2 

" 

" 

4 

" 

53i-  o 

:2d        " 

25 

o 

4 

20  X  f 

it 

4 

« 

493-20 

3d      " 

13 

0 

4 

" 

" 

4 

" 

450.00 

4th     " 

12 

9 

li 

16  X  A 

i6Xi 

it 

4 

« 

418  50 

5th     •• 

12 

3 

4 

" 

" 

4 

" 

368.50 

6th     " 

12 

5 

4 

16  X  -i 

« 

4 

" 

326.00 

7th     " 

II 

6 

1   2 

i6Xi 

10  XI 

4 

5  X  31  X  I 

282.00 

8th     " 

II 

6 

2 

11 

" 

4 

« 

236.60 

gth     " 

II 

6 

2 

i6Xf 

'* 

4 

«• 

I95-70 

30th      " 

II 

6 

2 

14  x  A 

8X1 

4 

«« 

159-50 

nth     "  • 

II 

6 

2 

•• 

" 

4 

«« 

123.52 

I2th     " 

II 

6 

2 

" 

tt 

4 

«* 

88.00 

J3th     " 

13 

o 

2 

14  Xi 

" 

4 

«« 

54-8o 

I4th     " 

II 

9 

2 

4 

23-55 

These  columns  were  supplied  with  f  in.  thick  plates  between,  and  at  back  of 
column,  with  knee-braces  at  the  joints,  and  when  connections  were  made  into 
the  transverse  floor  girders. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

U,  of  C. 
ASSOCIATION  LIBRARY 


94 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


STEEL  GIRDERS  HOME  LIFE  BUILDING. 
GIRDERS  MARKED  A. 


2d    tier Web  24"  X  f "  X  26'-9f "      long,  6"  X  4"  X  f  L's. 

3d     "     "  "        X 

4th    "     "  "        X       " 

6th  "     "  "  X  26- 1  of  "  " 

7th  "     "  "  X        " 

8th  "     "  "  X  27-o| 

9th  " "  "  X27-3i 

loth  "     •'.  "  X       "  "     6X4X£ 

nth  " "  "  X  27-5^-  " 

I2th  "     "  *'  X  27-9! 

I3ih  "     "  "  X       "  "     5X3iX| 

I5th    "     "  "         X        "  " 

i6th    "     "  "         X       "  "          " 

Girders  marked  B,  C,  and  F  are  similar  to  the  above,  but  vary  in  length. 

GIRDER  MARKED  R. 

2d  tier Web  24"  X  1"  X  26'-!  if"  4-6"  X  4"  X  f "  L's, 

5  Web  48"  X  |"  X  26-iif'  2-3"  X  3"  X  I"   L. 

Top  plate  12"  X  |"  X        " 
Bott.   "      12"  XI"  X       " 

FIRST  TIER  OF  BOX  GIRDERS. 
GIRDERS  MARKED  "A." 

4  top  plates    20"  X  I"  X  29'  4^"  long. 
4  bott.   "         20"  X  f"  X      "          " 
4  web    "       28^"  X  I"  X      " 
4  angles     6"  X  4"X  f'X      " 

GIRDERS  MARKED  B. 

4  top  plates    20"  X  f "  X  29'  4^"  long. 

2    "       "         20"  X  f"  X      " 

4  bott.   "         20"  X  I"  X      " 

2     "      "         20"  X  f"  X      " 

2  web    "       26^'  X  1"  X      " 

4  angles     6"X4"X|"X       " 

These  girders  were  supplied  with  stiffeners,  extra  plates  and  cast  separators 
in  each  end,  to  resist  shearing  and  buckling  of  the  webs. 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.   Y.  95 

The  girders  of  the  first  tier  rest  upon  cast-iron  base  plates, 
•which  set  upon  granite  blocks,  as  shown  in  the  section,  Fig.  50. 

Bases  for  the  A  columns  are  4'  long,  3'  high,  and  \\"  thick  ; 

B  bases,  f  X  $'  X  2"  and  ij-"  ribs ;   C  bases,  5'  6"  X  3'  X  if" ; 

F  and  JR  bases,  3'X  3'X  ij".     The  columns  do  not  set  directly 

upon  the  bases,  but  rest  upon  the  girders ;  the  weight  upon  a 

column  is  transmitted   through  the  girder  to  the  base  plate, 

the  girder  being  stiffened  to  resist   shearing  and  buckling  of 

the  webs  by  heavy  wrought-steel  plates,  angle  stiffeners,  and 

heavy  cast-iron  separators,  the  centre  line  of  pressure  is  thus 

extended  farther  from  the  party  wall  than  it  would  be  if  the 

column  was  supported  directly  upon  the  granite  block. 

Specification  of  the  several  works,  materials,  matters  and  things 

to  be  done  and  furnished  for  the  cast  and  wrought  iron  and 

steel  work,  etc.,  for  the  building  of  the  Home  Life  Insurance 

Company,  at  No.  256,  258  Broadway,  in  the  city  of  New 

York. 

All  steel  and  iron  work  throughout  the  building  is  to  be 
executed  in  the  best  and  most  substantial  manner,  and  the 
contractor  is  to  provide  all  requisite  materials,  implements, 
models,  mechanical  appliances,  tools,  carriage,  scaffolding,  etc., 
of  every  kind  and  description,  necessary  to  properly  execute 
.and  erect  all  the  works,  and  protect  the  same  during  construc- 
tion. The  whole  work  is  to  be  done  according  to  the  plans, 
drawings,  and  directions  of  N.  Le  Brun  &  Sons,  architects, 
.and  subject  to  their  approval. 

General. — The  transverse  girders  shown  on  framing  plans 
are  to  be  at  right  angles  with  the  southern  wall  of  building, 
with  the  exception  of  the  first,  against  the  Broadway  front, 
and  the  beams  will  be  parallel  to  the  southern  wall. 

All  the  various  members  of  the  wrought  constructional 
work  are  to  be  of  steel.  The  general  design  ot  the  various 
parts  is  shown  in  the  scale  drawings  and  details,  and  the  con- 
tractor is  to  include  all  the  angles,  splice  plates,  ties,  braces, 
drilling,  riveting,  bolting,  etc.,  etc.,  necessary  to  put  the  work 


96  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS, 

together  in  a  perfect,  workman-like  manner,  as  may  be  here- 
after directed  or  designed. 

The  columns  are  to  be  made  in  lengths  of  not  over  three 
stories. 

The  angles  and  plates  in  columns  and  girders  to  be  whole 
from  end  to  end,  unless  otherwise  shown,  or  allowed  by  the 
architects. 

The  rivets  for  columns  and  girders  to  be  J  inches  in  diame- 
ter, unless  otherwise  indicated. 

The  base  plates  under  first  tier  of  girders  are  to  be  set  per- 
fectly true  and  level. 

The  columns  must  be  set  so  that  their  axes  are  perfectly 
plumb,  and  the  outside  faces  of  columns  are  to  be  kept  plumb 
for  full  height  of  building,  4  inches  from  the  outside  face  of 
walls.  The  columns  in  top  story  vary  in  height. 

The  connection  between  the  columns,  and  connections 
between  columns  and  girders  are  shown  in  general  on  the 
detail  sheets.  The  connection  between  the  girders  and  floor 
beams  is  to  be  by  standard  connections,  with  angle  iron  rests 
below  the  beams. 

Each  tier  of  beams  is  to  be  tied  where  shown  in  plans  by 
J-inch  rods,  with  heads  and  nuts  at  each  beam,  all  of  which  is 
to  be  thoroughly  tightened  before  the  arching  is  built  in  be- 
tween them. 

The  girders  of  first  tier  on  which  the  columns  rest  are  to 
be  bolted  or  riveted  to  the  cast-iron  base,  with  separators 
accurately  fitting  plates,  and  are  to  be  absolutely  true  on 
top  and  bottom  surfaces,  so  as  to  give  an  even  bearing  through- 
out. 

Quality  of  Steel. — All  steel  used  is  to  be  Bessemer  or 
Open-Hearth  steel.  The  tensile  strength,  limit  of  elasticity, 
and  ductility  shall  be  determined  from  a  standard  test  piece 
cut  from  the  finished  material,  and  planed  or  turned  parallel ; 
the  piece  to  have  as  near  -J  square  inch  sectional  area  as 
possible,  and  elongation  to  be  measured  on  an  original 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y. 


length  of  8  inches ;  two  test  pieces  to  be 
taken  from  each  heat  of  rolled  finished 
material,  one  for  tension  and  one  for  bending. 
The  tests  are  to  be  made  in  the  presence  of  a 
representative  for  the  owners,  should  such  be 
deemed  necessary,  and  all  facilities  for  the 
purpose  shall  be  afforded  by  the  manufacturer. 

Finished  bars  must  be  free  from  injurious 
seams,  flaws,  or  cracks,  and  have  a  workman- 
like finish,  and  shall  have  an  ultimate  strength 
of  from  58,000  to  60,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch; 
elastic  limit  %  the  ultimate  strength ;  mini- 
mum elongation  20  per  cent  in  8  inches ; 
minimum  reduction  of  area  of  fracture  40  per 
cent.  This  grade  of  steel  is  to  bend  cold  180 
degrees  to  a  diameter  equal  to  thickness  of 
the  piece  tested  without  crack  or  flaw  on  the 
outside  of  the  bent  portion. 

Rivet  Steel.— Rivet  steel  shall  have  a 
specified  tensile  strength  of  60,000  Ibs.  per 
square  inch,  and  is  to  be  capable  of  bending 
double  flat  without  sign  of  fracture  on  the 
convex  surface  of  the  bend. 

Workmanship. — Inspection  of  the  work 
shall  be  made  at  the  mill  by  the  owner's  rep- 
resentative if  deemed  necessary,  as  the  work 
progresses,  and  he  shall  have  the  right  to 
condemn  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  work, 
if  in  his  opinion  it  is  not  to  the  standard 
required  by  the  drawings  and  these  specifica- 
tions. 

All  workmanship  must  be  first  class.  The 
rivet-holes  for  splice  plates  for  abutting 
members  shall  be  accurately  placed,  so  that 
when  members  are  brought  into  position 


1 


FIG.  51. —TRANS- 
VERSE SECTION  OF 
BUILDING  ORIG- 
INALLY STARTED. 


98  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

the    holes   shall    be    truly   opposite    before    the    rivets    are 
driven. 

Rivets  must  completely  fill  the  holes  and  have  full  heads 
concentric  with  the  rivets  of  a  height  not  less  than  C/.6",  the 
diameter  of  the  rivet,  and  in  full  contact  with  the  surface,  or 
to  be  countersunk  when  so  required,  and  machine-driven  where- 
ever  practicable. 

All  abutting  surfaces  of  compression  members  must  be 
planed  or  turned  to  an  even  bearing,  so  that  they  shall  be  in 
perfect  contact  throughout. 

Separators  must  accurately  fit. 

Built  members  must,  when  finished,  be  true  and  free  from 
twists,  kinks,  buckles,  or  open  joints  between  the  component 
pieces. 

Framing  of  Top  Story  and  Spire. — The  top  story  over 
main  roof  and  the  spire  and  the  side  of  the  elevator  bulkhead 
are  to  be  constructed  of  tie  and  angle  iron,  as  shown  in  general 
on  drawings.  All  to  be  properly  framed  and  riveted  together 
and  strongly  wind-braced,  and  firmly  secured  down  to  the 
steel  frame-work  of  the  building.  The  work  is  to  include  all 
framing  around  windows  and  doors,  and  all  requirements  by 
other  mechanics  necessary  for  them  to  put  up  their  work  com- 
plete. The  columns  supporting  the  girders  and  beams  of  roof 
are  to  be  of  steel  frame-work,  vertical  on  one  side  and  inclined 
to  the  pitch  of  the  spire  on  the  other. 

Painting  at  Works. — The  entire  steel-work  of  every  de- 
scription, including  all  columns,  beams,  girders,  separators, 
plates,  tie-rods,  etc.,  to  be  cleaned  of  all  scales  and  dirt,  and 
painted  with  one  good  coat  of  best  red  lead  and  linseed  oil, 
before  it  is  brought  to  the  ground. 

All  surfaces  inaccessible  after  assembling  must  be  painted 
two  coats  before  the  parts  are  assembled. 

Sundry  Work — Anchors. — All  anchors,  bolts,  clamps, 
straps,  dowels,  rests  for  brick-work,  etc.,  required  to  connect 
the  metal  construction  with  masonry,  must  be  furnished  and 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.   Y.  99 

made  properly,  as  required  by  contractor  for  masonry  and 
stone-work,  to  suit  their  relative  positions  and  be  of  such  di- 
mensions and  sections  as  directed.  Anchors  connected  with 
beams,  framings,  etc.,  are  to  be  securely  fastened,  care  being 
taken  that  there  is  no  looseness  between  the  parts  anchored. 

All  anchors,  etc.,  for  stone-work  to  be  well  galvanized. 
Dimensions  figured  on  the  drawings  are  to  be  followed  in 
all  cases  in  preference  to  scale  measures,  and  drawings  and  de- 
tails to  a  larger  scale  in  preference  to  those  at  a  smaller  scale, 
and  they  must  all  be  verified  by  contractor  ;  and  if  any  error  in 
dimensions  or  omissions  in  detail  be  discovered,  either  on  the 
drawings  or  in  these  specifications,  or  discrepancies  between 
the  figures  and  actual  construction  in  the  building,  the  con- 
tractor must  immediately  report  the  same  to  the  architects  for 
rectification,  explanation,  or  direction,  as  he  will  not  be  allowed 
to  take  advantage  of  the  same,  but  shall  carry  out  the  details 
as  originally  intended  and  required,  or  as  will  be  essential  to 
the  proper  construction  and  finish  of  the  work ;  and  any  and 
all  drawings  of  details  of  construction  made  by  the  contractor 
for  iron  and  steel-work  must  be  submitted  to  the  architects 
for  their  examination  and  approval  before  being  put  into  exe- 
cution. 

Painting  at  the  Building. — After  the  steel-work  is  built 
in  position  and  just  previous  to  the  building  of  walls  and  floor 
arches,  or  the  permanent  covering  of  any  of  the  wrought 
steel-work,  the  same  is  to  be  again  thoroughly  painted  with 
best  red  lead  and  pure  linseed  oil,  well  laid  on. 

The  cast-iron,  after  being  thoroughly  cleaned,  is  to  be 
painted  with  a  good  coat  of  pure  linseed  oil  previous  to  de- 
livery at  the  building,  and  after  delivery  and  approval  at  the 
building  and  before  being  put  into  position,  is  to  receive  a  coat 
of  red-lead  paint  as  specified  above  for  steel-work. 

All  bolts,  nuts,  etc.,  or  any  iron  or  steel  surfaces  from 
which  the  paint  may  have  been  removed  in  putting  the  work 
in  place,  are  to  be  painted  as  above  two  coats. 


IOO  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.  52. — LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  BUILDING,  AN  ADDITIONAL  STORY  TO  BE 

ADDED. 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.          IO! 

Cast-iron. — All  cast-iron  work  to  be  of  the  best  quality, 
and  all  castings  must  be  sound,  true,  out  of  wind,  clean,  free 
from  flaws,  holes,  or  imperfections  of  every  kind,  and  strictly 
made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings  and  directions  of  the 
architects,  to  whom  all  patterns  for  the  ornaments,  mouldings, 
etc.,  must  be  submitted  for  approval  before  casting. 

Lintels. — Cast-iron  lintels  are  to  be  placed  over  the  doors 
leading  to  the  coal  vaults. 

Base  for  W.  I.  Smoke  Flue. — The  base  for  the  wrought- 
iron  smoke  flue  is  to  be  of  cast-iron,  with  flanges,  bottom 
plate,  etc.,  as  shown  on  the  drawings.  The  top  flange  is  to  be 
planed  true,  and  is  to  be  drilled  for  f-inch  bolts  to  secure  the 
bottom  flange  of  the  wrought-iron  flue. 

Plates. — Under  wall  ends  of  beams,  cast-iron  plates  are  to 
be  furnished  8"  X  12"  X  i"  to  be  set  by  the  mason,  but  the 
contractor  for  iron-work  in  laying  the  beams  is  to  verify  the 
correctness  of  their  position. 

Door  to  Flue. — The  cleaning-out  door  to  the  smoke-flue  in 
cellar  is  to  be  of  heavy  cast-iron,  strongly  hinged  to  a  cast-iron 
frame  built  in  the  masonry,  and  provided  with  approved  fast- 
ening, etc.,  complete.  The  door  is  to  fit  absolutely  tight. 

Frame  to  Ash-lift. — The  frame  to  ash-lift  in  sidewalk  is 
to  be  of  cast-iron,  strongly  made  and  to  fit  accurately  to  the 
soffit  of  the  brick  sidewalk  arch.  The  upper  flange,  rebated 
in  the  pavement,  is  to  be  deeply  corrugated  or  diamond 
roughened.  The  frame  is  to  be  made  to  receive  a  wrouo-ht- 
iron  hinged  grating  hereafter  specified. 

Vault  Lights. — Along  the  Broadway  front,  as  shown  on 
plan  of  first  story,  provide  vault  lights  with  extra  heavy  frame 
of  cast-iron,  rebated  and  provided  with  all  necessary  and  ap- 
proved supports,  and  stiffening  webs,  filled  with  concrete  lights, 
and  2-inch  diameter  approved  lenses.  Beneath  the  window 
the  lights  are  to  be  raised  one  step  with  ventilating  riser,  as 
will  be  detailed. 


102  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Similar  lights  are  to  be  placed  in  the  floor  of  basement  over 
the  entrance  to  boiler-room. 

Curved  Skylight. — Provide  and  place  over  the  rear  of 
first  story,  as  shown  on  plans  and  longitudinal  section,  and 
extending  across  the  whole  width  of  building,  a  curved  skylight 
made  of  heavy  cast-iron  frames,  filled  with  best  cement,  light 
lenses  2^  inches  in  diameter.  The  same  is  to  be  finished  with 
proper  copper  flashings  and  have  cast-iron  gutter  at  lower  end 
of  proper  pitch,  and  outlet  for  leader  connection  and  forming  a 
wall-coping.  Also  provide  with  interior  condensation  gutters 
as  will  be  directed  and  required» 

All  vault-lights  and  skylights,  etc.,  must  be  made  and  guar- 
anteed to  be  thoroughly  water-tight,  and  be  so  maintained  for 
two  years  after  the  completion  of  the  building. 

Coal-hole  Covers  were  shown  on  plan.  Furnish  and  set 
securely  in  pavement  over  coal  vaults,  two  24-inch  round  cast- 
iron  coal-chute  covers,  filled  with  cement  lenses,  and  to  be 
provided  with  rebated  frame,  chain,  fastening  staples,  etc., 
complete.  The  cover  and  frame  are  to  be  set  flush  with  the 
sidewalk. 

Sills  to  Doors  on  Roof. — Cast-iron  sills,  corrugated  or  dia- 
mond roughened,  are  to  be  placed  to  the  doors  leading  from 
top  floor  to  roof  over  rear,  and  from  tank-room  in  spire  to  roof 
and  to  elevator  bulkhead. 

Bronze  Saddles. — Furnish  and  put  securely  and  neatly  in 
position  bronze  saddles  to  the  main  entrance  doors  on  Broad- 
way, as  will  be  approved. 

Cast-iron  Mullions,  etc. ;  Rear  and  Courts. — Between 
the  steel  girders  and  columns  forming  the  constructional  part 
of  the  rear  wall,  and  between  the  girders  and  beams  of  each 
story  on  light-courts  are  to  be  cast-iron  columns  or  mullions, 
and  moulded  cast-iron  sills  and  lintels  or  cornices,  as  shown  on 
elevations.  All  are  to  be  cast  straight  and  smooth  of  full  uni- 
form thickness  throughout,  and  to  have  all  requisite  lugs, 
brackets,  connecting  flanges,  etc.,  cast  on  as  directed,  and 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.          103 

strictly  conform  to  the  detail  drawings  to  be  furnished,  and  be 
securely  bolted  to  the  girders,  etc. 

Columns  to  Elevator  Shaft. — The  columns  to  elevator 
shaft  on  various  stones  are  to  be  of  cast-iron,  cast  true  and 
finished  smooth  in  plain  parts,  and  the  carved  and  decorated 
parts  to  be  sharp  and  hand-finished,  as  required.  On  first 
floor  the  columns  are  to  be  arranged  to  receive  the  marble 
pilasters  shown  on  drawings.  The  necessary  lugs  to  connect 
with  floor  and  veiling  beams  are  to  be  cast  on.  Models  of  the 
mouldings  and  carved  ornaments  are  to  be  submitted  to  the 
architects  for  approval  before  casting. 

Sills  to  Elevator  Doors,  etc. — The  facias  around  elevator 
shaft  at  line  of  floors  at  each  story  are  to  be  finished  with  cast 
and  wrought  iron  panels,  to  match  the  stair-work,  and  cast-iron 
sills  and  soffit  mouldings,at  ceilings,  all  as  detailed. 

Stairs. — The  stairs  throughout  the  building  are  to  be  of 
iron  construction,  and  finished  in  the  most  substantial,  secure, 
and  highly  artistic  manner,  as  per  plans,  sections,  and  full- 
sized  drawings.  All  to  be  framed  with  substantial  cast  arid 
wrought  iron  carriages,  strings,  braces,  brackets,  etc.  The 
under-side  and  all  exposed  parts  to  be  moulded,  panelled, 
and  thoroughly  finished.  The  wall  string  to  main  stairs  up 
to  third  story  to  be  made  "  open  "  for  marble  base  of  wainscot- 
ing ;  above  this  story  to  top  of  building  the  strings  are  to  be 
closed  or  panel-box  strings.  The  outside  string  to  be  closed 
throughout.  The  risers  to  be  solid  and  panelled.  All  to  be 
properly  lugged  and  flanged  to  receive  the  marble  treads  and 
platforms  to  be  furnished  by  the  contractor  for  marble-work,  and 
the  joints  neatly  and  accurately  fitted  and  bolted  and  fastened. 
The  facias  around  stair  wells  and  the  soffit  mould  are  to  be 
made  to  match  the  stairs.  The  rail  to  main  stairs  from  first 
story  to  top  story  is  to  consist  of  a  polished  bronze  or  brass 
2j-inch  diameter  rail.  The  rail  to  be  supported  on  square 
newels  and  finished  with  carved  bronze  or  brass  plates  at  ends. 
The  private  stairs  are  to  have  similar  rail  2  inches  in  diameter. 


104  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

All  requisite  bends  and  casements  to  be  carefully  formed  with 
easy  sweeps  and  curves.  The  balusters  or  supports  to  hand 
rails  are  to  be  of  decorated  cast-iron  in  main  stairs  up  to  third 
story,  artistically  hand-finished,  and  the  balance  of  the  balus- 
trade to  main  stairs  and  the  whole  of  the  private  stairs  to  be 
of  wrought-iron — all  as  shown  on  section  and  detailed.  The 
spandrils  to  the  first  story  and  basement  main  stairs  to  be 
filled  with  cast-iron  panel-work,  smoothly  finished  and  strongly 
and  neatly  put  together. 

The  stairs  from  store  to  basement  and  from  basement  to 
cellar  or  engine-room  to  be  of  circular  pattern  with  centre  newel, 
cast-iron  treads  and  platform  corrugated  or  perforated,  as  may 
be  directed,  and  open  strings  and  risers  and  string  wrought-iron 
railing,  and  hand-rail,  and  cast-iron  newels,  all  of  neat  finish  and 
substantial  construction,  as  directed.  The  ladder  to  tank  room 
in  spire  is  to  be  made  of  wrought-iron  with  double  run  treads  and 
wrought-iron  bar  hand  rails.  Similar  ladder  to  be  furnished 
from  cellar  to  engineer's  water-closet. 

Do  all  drilling  for  marble  setters  and  furnish  the  screws  to 
secure  the  marble  treads,  etc.,  to  the  iron  work. 

Guards  to  the  Elevator  Shaft. — The  elevator  shaft  from 
the  basement  to  the  top  story  is  to  be  enclosed  with  ornamen- 
tal wrought-iron  fret-work,  as  shown  on  the  section,  and  as  will 
be  detailed.  All  is  to  be  executed  in  the  best  artistic  manner. 
The  decorated  portions  of  the  first  and  second  story  screens  to 
have  hammered  leaf  and  scroll-work.  The  doors  throughout 

o 

are  to  be  wrought  iron,  strongly  framed,  hung  on  approved 
anti-friction  sheaves  and  steel-ways,  and  are  to  have  approved 
large  and  strong  latch  fastenings.  The  elevator  nearest  stairs 
is  to  be  a  freight  elevator,  and  the  doors  are  to  be  arranged  to 
open  the  full  width  of  elevator  car. 

Electro-Plating". — All  the  iron-work  about  the  main  stairs 
and  elevator  guards  from  start  to  third  story,  including  risers, 
strings,  balusters,  elevator  posts,  etc.,  complete,  are  to  be 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  ,V.    Y.          10$ 

heavily  electroplated  in  best  manner,  in  brass,  copper,  or  bronze, 
as  will  be  more  fully  directed  by  the  architects. 

Partition  to  Cellar  Stairs. — On  basement  story,  the 
cellar  stairs  are  to  be  enclosed  by  a  solid  wrought-iron  screen 
from  floor  to  ceiling.  The  screen  is  to  be  made  of  heavy 
crimped  iron,  secured  to  T-iron  uprights  and  horizontal  bars 
dividing  it  into  panels.  The  door  in  this  screen  is  also  to  be 
of  wrought-iron,  strongly  hinged  and  secured  with  approved 
lock  and  spring  catch.  The  door  is  to  be  made  to  fit  abso- 
lutely tight.  All  to  be  done  in  the  neatest  and  strongest 
manner,  as  will  be  approved. 

Main  Entrance  Doors. — The  doors  to  main  entrance  are 
to  be  hinged  in  three  folds,  to  fold  back  against  front  pier,  and 
are  to  be  constructed  of  best  bronze  with  panels  and  decorated 
mouldings.  The  doors  are  to  be  hung  on  strong  bronze  frame 
firmly  secured  to  stone  jambs,  and  are  to  be  hinged  in 
strongest  manner  and  finished  in  the  highest  artistic  style. 
Each  fold  to  have  top  and  bottom  bronze  bolts,  and  the  doors 
are  to  be  provided  with  best-made  Yale  &  Towne  bronze  lock, 
etc.,  complete.  All  as  will  be  approved. 

Wrought-iron  Boiler  Flue. — The  iron  smoke  stack,  to  be 
constructed  in  the  brick  flue  as  the  building  progresses,  is  to 
extend  from  the  cast-iron  shoe,  specified  above,  in  basement  to 
eighteen  inches  above  the  top  of  chimney  over  roof,  and  is  to  be 
made  of  best  wrought-iron  f  inches  thick,  stiffened  by  f "  X  3" 
bands.  The  sections  of  which  the  flue  is  to  be  constructed 
are  to  be  of  such  lengths  as  can  be  readily  handled,  and  are  in 
no  case  to  exceed  20  feet. 

The  ends  of  such  section  are  to  have  3"  X  3"  X  f"  angles 
riveted  on,  through  which  the  several  sections  will  be  tightly 
bolted  or  riveted  together,  and  the  joints  between  the  sections 
are  to  be  gas-tight,  and  all  is  to  be  put  together  as  will  be 
directed  and  approved.  The  stack  is  to  be  kept  in  a  vertical 
position  by  wrought-iron  bars  built  in  the  masonry  flue,  but 
care  is  to  be  taken  in  locating  the  bars,  that  they  do  not  come 


IO6  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

in  contact  with  any  joint  or  projecting  stiffener,  and  that  the 
stack  has  free  play  to  expand. 

Furring. — The  panelled  ceiling  of  entrance  hall  and  the 
panelled  ceiling  and  cornices  of  the  main  office  are  to  be  furred 
with  angle  irons  ij"  X  i^'7,  spaced  about  twelve  inches  between 
centres,  approximately  to  the  shape  of  the  plaster  mouldings, 
etc.,  all  complete,  as  required  by  plasterer,  for  the  attachment 
of  the  wire  cloth  or  metal  lathing.  All  furring  is  to  be  secured 
to  the  walls  and  suspended  and  secured  to  the  beams,  girders, 
and  brackets  in  the  most  substantial  manner,  as  approved. 

Floors  Beneath  Elevators.— The  floor  beneath  the  two 
elevators  stopping  at  first  story  and  the  floor  beneath  elevator 
stopping  at  basement  are  to  be  furred  down  two  feet  below 
the  finished  floors  in  a  substantial  manner  with  tee  irons, 
secured  to  under  side  of  beams  and  in  walls.  Floor  over  these 
tees  with  wrought-iron  plates  firmly  secured  to  them,  to  make 
a  substantial  floor. 

Skylight  Over  Main  Office  and  Elevators. — Inclined  flat 
skylights  are  to  be  provided  over  the  main  office  ceiling  beneath 
light-court  and  over  the  elevator  shaft.  The  core  of  the  bars 
to  be  made  of  7"-shape  iron  of  ample  and  approved  strength, 
and  must  be  enclosed  by  cold-rolled  copper,  20  ounces  to  the 
square  foot,  to  afford  a  support  to  the  glass  and  form  double 
condensation  gutters.  They  are  to  be  glazed  with  £  in.  rough 
plate  or  ribbed  glass  laid  in  white-lead  putty  in  best  manner. 
Along  the  lower  edge  of  skylight  over  main  office,  provide  a 
substantial  cast-iron  gutter  with  proper  pitch  and  outlet  for 
leader  connection,  and  to  flash  into  the  wall  as  shown  and 
form  a  coping.  Beneath  this  skylight  is  to  be  placed  a  strong 
wire  screen,  supported  on  strong  wrought-iron  frame  made  in 
movable  panels  securely  put  up,  as  will  be  approved. 

Glass  Under  Skylight. — Beneath  the  above  skylight  in 
main  office  is  to  be  a  ceiling-light,  of  crackled  and  other  glass, 
to  be  provided  in  a  separate  contract ;  but  the  contractor  for 
iron-work  is  to  furnish  and  put  up  the  wrought  iron  angle 


THE  HOME  LIFE  INSURANCE   BUILDING,  N.    Y.          IO/ 

frames  to  support  the  glass,  as  shown  on  ceiling  plan.  All  to 
be  done  in  the  strongest  manner,  as  approved. 

Skylights  in  Top  Story. — Over  the  stairs  to  top  story  is 
to  be  placed  a  best-make  turret  ventilating  skylight  of  copper, 
with  vertical  sashes  on  sides  and  ends.  The  sashes  are  to  be 
hung  on  pivots  on  two  sides.  All  to  be  constructed  in  the 
most  substantial  manner.  The  skylight  is  to  be  constructed 
of  hollow  copper  bars,  provided  with  gutters,  to  connect  with 
cross-gutters  at  upper  and  lower  sides  ;  the  gutters  at  lower 
sides  to  be  provided  with  indirect  openings  for  the  escape  of 
condensed  moisture,  and  at  the  same  time  be  perfectly  weather- 
tight.  The  sashes  are  to  be  provided  with  approved  fasten- 
ings and  apparatus  for  keeping  same  open  at  any  angle.  The 
glazing  is  to  be  done  in  the  best  manner  with  ^-inch  thick  best 
quality  ribbed  plate  glass  of  uniform  tint. 

All  the  above  skylights  must  be  made  and  guaranteed  to 
be  thoroughly  weather-tight,  and  be  so  maintained  for  two 
years  after  the  completion  of  the  building. 

Floor -lights. — Floor-lights  are  to  be  furnished  where 
shown  on  plans  of  first  and  second  stories.  All  to  be  made  of 
heavy  wrought-iron  frames,  strongly  supported  and  filled  with 
one-inch  thick  hammered  12-inch  square  glass,  or  as  shown 
and  directed,  the  glass  to  be  bedded  in  white-lead  putty. 

Window  Guards. — Window  guards  of  round  f-inch  bars, 
set  4J-  inch,  on  centres,  are  to  be  secured  to  the  iron  posts  or 
mullioris  of  rear  in  the  first-story  mezzanine  and  second-story. 
All  to  be  framed  out  and  put  up  in  best  secure  manner. 

Grating  Doors  Over  Ash-lift. — On  sidewalk  over  ele- 
vator, or  lift  for  ashes,  furnish  and  set  complete  a  pair  of 
wrought-iron  grating  doors,  hung  on  the  cast-iron  flanged  and 
rebated  frame  before  specified,  with  strong  hinges  and  pro- 
vided with  proper  fastenings,  and  ratchet  to  keep  open,  and 
with  safety-guards. 

Platfprm  Over  Elevators. — A  strong  wrought-iron  grat- 


108  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

ing  platform  is  to  be  built  in  the  elevator  shaft  just  below  the 
machinery  overhead. 

Clamps. — Furnish  the  necessary  clamps  of  wrought-iron  to 
the  carpenter  to  secure  the  wooden  sleepers  to  the  iron  beams, 
as  will  be  required. 

Jobbing. — Do  all  cutting,  drilling,  and  fitting  of  iron-work, 
and  furnish  and  insert  all  requisite  bolts,  holdfasts,  etc.,  re- 
quired by  other  mechanics. 

General.— The  contractor  is  to  remove  from  the  premises 
all  rubbish  arising  from  his  operations  as  the  work  proceeds 
and  at  completion  of  same.  He  must  comply  with  all  munici- 
pal or  corporation  ordinances  and  the  laws  and  regulations 
relating  to  buildings  in  the  city  of  New  York.  He  will  be 
liable  and  responsible  for  any  damage  to  life,  limb,  or  property 
that  may  arise  or  occur  to  any  party  whatever,  either  from 
accident  or  owing  to  his  negligence  or  that  of  his  employes 
during  the  operations  of  constructing  or  completing  the  works 
herein  specified. 

Should  any  difference  of  opinion  or  dispute  arise  between 
the  contracting  parties  in  relation  to  the  true  meaning  of  the 
plans,  drawings,  or  these  specifications,  reference  is  to  be  made 
to  the  architects,  whose  decision  on  all  such  points  shall  be 
final  and  conclusive.  No  additional  work  will  be  allowed 
unless  ordered  by  the  architects  in  writing,  and  the  order 
countersigned  by  the  agent  of  the  company  ;  and  no  bill  for 
work  so  ordered  will  be  approved  by  the  architects  unless  it  is 
rendered  immediately  upon  completion  and  approval  of  the 
said  work. 

No  signs  of  any  description  will  be  allowed  to  be  placed  on 
or  about  the  building  or  premises. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
THE  HAVEMEYER   BUILDING. 

THE  Havemeyer  Building,  designed  by  Geo.  B.  Post,  archi^ 
tect,  situated  at  Cortland,  Dey,  and  Church  streets,  New  York, 


FIG.  53. — HAVEMEYER  BUILDING,  N.  Y. 

towers  fifteen  stories,  193  feet  including  roof-house,  above  the 
level  of  the  street ;  and  is  one  of  the  most  imposing  and  attrac- 
tive of  these  majestic  modern  structures. 

109 


HO  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

A  building  60  by  215  feet  and  with  its  sides  to  the  free  outer 
air  of  the  public  streets  gave  room  for  the  exercise  of  architec- 
tural imagination  and  invention,  such  as  is  seldom  found  in 
the  business  section  of  the  city,  where  the  transformation  from 
low  to  high  buildings  is  in  progress. 

All  that  the  modern  art  of  architecture  and  the  modern  skill 
in  building  craft  could  do  to  produce  a  building  perfect  in  .all 
its  appointments  has  been  employed  to  produce  the  Havemeyer 
Building. 

Lime-stone,  terra-cotta,  brick  and  stone  work,  with  wrought- 
iron  riveted  columns  and  steel  beams,  were  the  materials 
chiefly  employed  in  its  construction,  and  it  is  thoroughly  fire- 
proof throughout.  The  floors,  hall-walls,  and  stairs  are  of  tile 
and  marble,  and  fire-proof  materials  were  used  jwherever  pos- 
sible. 

Seven  improved  elevators  are  situated  in  the  rear  at  the 
centre  of  the  building,  two  of  which  are  used  as  express  eleva- 
tors. 

The  roof  floor  is  fitted  as  a  restaurant  and  cafe,  with  open 
roof  in  warm  weather  and  promenade,  where  superb  views  of 
the  bay  and  surrounding  country  can  be  had  from  this  height. 

Floor  Plan. — By  referring  to  the  floor  plan  of  the  build- 
ing, Fig.  55,  the  arrangement  of  the  floor  area  into  offices, 
corridors,  stairway,  and  elevators  is  shown.  The  longest  front 
faces  Church  Street,  the  smallest  Cortlandt  Street,  and  the  op- 
posite side  Dey  Street.  The  rear  is  also  open  to  the  air. 

An  important  feature  has  been  introduced  above  the 
floor,  in  the  way  of  extra  light,  secured  by  large  windows  in 
the  street  side  and  rear  and  glass  windows  in  the  partition 
enclosing  the  hall,  making  every  room  very  bright  and  at- 
tractive. 

The  ground  or  main  floor  of  the  building  has  entrances 
running  through  from  each  street  at  the  end  of  the  corri- 
dor, with  an  additional  stairway  at  each  end  connecting 
the  basement  and  first  floor.  There  is  also  a  cellar  in 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING. 


Ill 


addition  to   the   basement    below    the    street    level.      Each 
floor    plan    is    divided    into    22 
offices,  about   i5'.6"  X  19'. 6"  in 
size. 

Wrought-iron  Boiler  Flue. 
— The  boiler  flue,  40  inches -in 
diameter,  is  situated  outside  the 
building  at  the  left  side  of  the 
elevators,  encased  with  brick  the 
entire  height  of  building.  The 
brick  shaft  is  8'.6"  outside  diam- 
eter ;  a  24-inch  wall  is  carried  up 
IOO  feet,  a  2O-inch  wall  36  feet ; 
then  a  i6-inch  wall  the  remain- 
ing height,  making  a  total  of  197 
feet  from  curb  level  to  top  of 
chimney.  The  circular  wall  of 
elevators  is  of  brick  and  built 
up  to  within  4  feet  of  this  total 
height.  (See  specifications  and 
Fig.  6 1.) 

Beam  Plan. — We  have  in 
this  example  a  variation  of  the 
skeleton  construction  ;  the  walls 
simply  carry  their  own  weight 
and  are  not  supported  by  girders 
and  columns,  as  in  the  skeleton 
frame.  The  columns  start  in 
the  walls  at  the  lower  story; 
when  they  reach  the  top  of  the 
building  several  feet  intervene, 
as  shown  in  the  transverse  sec-  FIG.  54.— TYPICAL  FLOOR  -PLAN, 
tion,at  columns/) and  K,  Fig.  55.  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING. 

The  thickness  of  the  rear  brick  wall  in  cellar  56  in.,  basement 
48  in.,  ground  story  44  in.,  1st  story  40  in.,  2d  story  36  in.,  3d 


112 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


\ 


J 


story  32  in.,  4th  story  32  in.,  5th   story  28  in.,  6th  to  and  in- 

p _  eluding  Qth  story  24  in.,  loth  and 

nth  story  20  in.,  I2th  story  16 
in.  The  thickness  of  the  front 
walls  are  :  cellar  60  in.,  basement 
56  in.,  ground  floor  52  in.,  1st 
story  44  in.,  2d  and  3d  story  40 
in.,  4th  story  39  to  36  in.,  5th  to 
and  including  loth  story  36  in., 
nth  story  32in.,  I2th  story  30 
and  28  in.,  I3th  story  and  above 
28  in. 

By  comparing  the  floor  plan, 
Fig.  54,  with  the  beam  plan,  Fig. 
55,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  col- 
umns are  placed  in  each  parti- 
tion ;  between  the  columns  these 
partitions  in  most  cases  rest 
directly  upon  the  girders.  In 
calculating  the  floor  loads  the 
beams  are  not  required  to  take 
this  partition  load,  but  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  partitions 
are  changed  to  suit  tenants ;  it 
is  therefore  necessary  that  the 
beams  be  calculated  to  carry  the 
total  dead  and  live  load. 

The  beams  and  girders  being 
of  steel  are  designed  to  sup- 
port 200  Ibs.  per  square  foot  of 
area,  which  includes  dead  and 
live  load  ;  the  dead  load  equals 
about  IOO  Ibs.  per  square  foot. 


12 


FIG.  55. — BEAM  PLAN. 

The  girders  on  the  B  line  of  column  are  12"  X  32  IDS-  and 
"  X  40  Ibs.   per  foot  I-beams  the  same  principle  being  used 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING. 


throughout  except  at  columns  D  and  K,  where  lateral  brac- 
ing- is  used  (see  the  transverse  section,  Fig.  58,  and  details, 


FIG.  56. — ROOF  PLAN.  FIG.  57. — FOUNDATION  PLAN. 

Fig.  59) ;  here  two  12-in.  channels  20  Ibs.  per  foot  are  placed 
side  by  side. 


114  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

The  floor  beams  are  9  inches  deep  and  from  21  to  27  Ibs. 
per  foot,  placed  from  3  ft.  10  in.  to  4  ft.  5  in.  centre  and  fast- 
ened to  the  12-in.  beam  girders  (see  detail  of  column,  Fig.  60, 
where  the  beam  connection  is  shown).  The  columns  are  sepa- 
rated 16  ft.  \\  in.  from  B  to  C,  C  to  D,  etc.  From  the  street 
line  (the  dotted  line  shown  in  Fig.  55)  to  the  centre  of  columns 
Bj  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  etc.,  is  4  ft.  4  in. ;  from  D  column  to  ^the 
column  immediately  in  the  rear  on  the  D  column  line  is  13  ft. 
4  in.;  to  the  next  column  15  ft.  5  in.;  to  the  next  column  on  D 
line  at  rear  wall  is  9  ft.  5  in.;  then  to  the  area  wall  line  4  ft.  o  in. 
There  are  heavy  anchors  secured  to  the  column  at  the  lower 
floor  levels,  and  built  into  the  masonry  as  the  work  progresses, 
thus  completely  tying  the  column  walls  together ;  where  the 
walls  separate  a  few  feet  at  the  upper  floor  levels,  short  pieces 
of  12'  X  32  Ibs.  per  foot  Lbeams  were  used,  not  only  for 
anchorage,  but  to  support  the  channels  against  the  masonry, 
which  in  turn  support  the  wall  arches. 

Each  bay  of  floor  beams  were  connected  by  one  row  of  i-in. 
diameter  tie-rods,  extending  from  wall  facing  street  to  rear 
walls,  completely  tying  the  masonry  and  metal  frame  together. 

The  transverse  section  also  shows  the  depth  of  the  founda- 
tions and  their  breadth. 

The  brick-work  is  about  24  ft.  6  in.  below  the  ground  floor 
level,  and  9  ft.  thick  at  the  lowest  point  which  rests  upon  heavy 
bed  stone,  then  6"  X  18"  planking,  2  layers  thick,  then  con- 
crete and  piling.  The  foundations  for  the  columns  are  built  in 
like  manner. 

The  foundation  plan,  Fig.  57,  gives  the  position  and  arrange- 
ment of  these  columns  and  wall  piers,  also  showing  the  portion 
of  the  rear  wall  which  has  a  continuous  foundation..  The 
heavy  continuous  wall  on  the  outside  of  the  plate  is  the  retain- 
ing wall  of  the  street ;  the  small  piers  between  this  wall  and  the 
piers  of  the  long  front  are  foundations  for  star  columns  made 
of  four  angles,  back  to  back,  supporting  the  basement  floor 
under  sidewalk,  and  a  small  wall  from  basement  level  to  side- 
walk. 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING. 


To  overcome  the  tendency  to  vibrate  in  the  metal  frame 
work  of  the  structure  when  the  work  is  in  advance  of  the 
masonry  and  to  keep  the  columns  plumb,  sway  braces  were 
introduced  at  the  D  and 
K  line  of  column,  as 
shown  on  the  transverse 
section,  Fig.  58,  (not 
lateral  wind  braces,  as 
some  have  supposed), 
made  of  i^-in'.  diameter 
rods  carried  from  the 
basement  to' the  twelfth 
story  ;  where  they  were 
made  of  i-in.  diameter, 
and  f-in.  diameter  in 
the  thirteenth  story. 

Each  rod  was  made 
in  two  sections  and  each 
section  had  the  ends 
upset  for  the  eyes  and 
the  screw  ends. 

Turn-buckles  were 
also  provided  for  all  the 
rods.  The  upset  screw 
ends  of  the  rods  were 
i f-in.  diameter  for  the 
ij-in.  rods,  if-in.  diam- 
eter for  the  i-in.  rods, 
and  i-in.  diameter  for 
the  f-in.  rods. 

The  sway -bracing 
was  put  in  place  and 

tightened    as  the  work 

,     rp,       ,        .,      FJG.  58.— TRANSVERSE  SE.CTION  AT  COLUMNS 
progressed.    The  detail,  D  ANU  K 

Fig.  59,  shows  the  manner  of  connecting  the  bracing  to  the 
channel  girder  and  columns. 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


To  bind  the  masonry,  three  lines  of  continuous  tie-bars 
were  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  exterior  walls,  of  4"  X  f "  flat 
wrought-iron  bars,  with  welded  ends  and  bored  for  i^-in.  diam- 
eter rods  1 6  in.  long  acting  as  a  spear;  the  tie-bars  were  laid 
flat,  while  the  spear  was  placed  vertical  in  the  masonry. 

These  tie-bars  were  placed  at  the  3d  story,  nth  story,  and 
1 3th  story  floor  levels. 


FIG.  59. 

Column  Detail. — The  detail,  Fig.  60,  shows  the  manner  of 
connecting  the  columns  to  each  other  and  to  the  girders  and 
floor  beams  of  the  building.  In  connecting  the  girders  to  the 
column  one  6"  X  4"  X  \"  angle,  9  in.  long  was  used  and  one 
5"  X  4"  X  J"  angle  6  in.  long  for  the  Q-in.  beams.  The  girder 
and  beam  were  supported  in  addition  to  the  above  angle-knees 
by  4"  X  4"  X  k"  angle  seats  as  shown. 

The  connection  plates  between  the  columns  are  of  wrought- 
iron  i  in.  thick,  and  when  the  upper  columns  are  one  or  two 
inches  less  than  the  column  below,  two  plates  are  used.  To 
secure  the  upper  with  the  lower  column  angle-knees  are  placed 
on  each  side  and  riveted  through  angles  and  plates. 

The  rivets  in  the  body  of  the  column  as  well  as  at  the  joints 
are  I  in.  in  diameter  for  columns  with  four  cover  plates  (two 
on  each  side)  and  over,  the  thickness  of  plates  being  over  J  in. 
thick ;  -|  in.  diameter  rivet  for  plate  \  in.  thick,  and  }-in.  diam- 
eter rivets  for  plates  less  than  f  in.  thick. 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING. 


II/ 


In  connecting  the  columns  with  the  cast-iron  base  plates,  the 
same  general  arrangement  is  observed  as  in  connecting  the 
columns  to  each  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  60 ;  in  place  of  rivets, 
bolts  are  used. 

The  base  plates  are  4'  x  4'  and  2  ft.  6  in.  height,  the  rib* 


FIG.  60. 


are  as  shown  on  the  figure;  the  heavier  columns  have   ij  in. 
and  the  lighter  columns  have  i^-in.  ribs. 

The  size  and  number  of  plates  in  a  few  of  the  lighter  and 
heavier  columns  are  given  in  the  following  table,  with  their 
loads  : 


Il8  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS: 

BOX    COLUMNS— HAVEMEYER    BUILDING. 
COLUMNS  MARKED  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  J,  K,  L. 


' 

Length. 

Outside  Plates. 

Webs. 

Angles. 

Load, 
Tons. 

Ft. 

In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

Basement     .  .  . 

9 
16 

14 
n 

13 
ii 

3 
0 

3 
.9 

2 

i5Xf 

I3X| 
I3XI 
I3XI 
i3Xi 

2 

« 

9lX$ 
9lXi 

4 

4X4X1 
31X31X1 

150 

139 

128.75 
118 
108.26 
98 
88 
78 
68.18 

58.39 
48.6 
38.8 
28.9 
19.14 
9-36 

Ground  floor.  . 
ist  story 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th              

7th 

8th 
oth 

joth 

nth 

1  2th            

igth          

i-in.  diameter  rivets  were  used  to  the  ist  story,  f-in.  to  2d  story,  f-in.  to  roof. 
COLUMNS  MARKED  M2. 

Cellar 

9 
9 
16 

n 

13 
ii 

0 

3 
o 

3 
9 

0 

9 
9 

4 
4 

(2 
4 

4 
4 

\  2 

4 

2 

15X1 

j  i5X| 
i5Xf 

i4Xf 
i  MX! 
14X1 

i3Xi 
i3Xi 

If! 
\l 

I" 

4 

2 

nXi 

iifXt 

"fX^ 

ioXf 

9iXf 
«( 

9lXl 
9iX| 

h 

t 

4X4X1 
31X31X1 
it 

345 

321 
297.6 

274-75. 
252 

229.4 

206.9 
184.69 
162.46 
140.42 
118.45 
96.71 
75 
53-5 
32.08 

Basement 

Ground  floor.  . 
ist  story        .  .  . 

2d      "         ... 

4th     " 

5th     "     

6th     " 

7th     " 

8th     " 

gth     "     .... 

ioth  "      

nth  "     

I2th  "          .    . 

i-in.  diameter  rivets  were  used  to  the  4th  story,  |-in.  to  gth  story,  f-in.  to  roof 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING. 

The  following  ideal  specification  covers  fully  all  the  re- 
-quirements  of  the  building  : 

Specification  of  the  Wrought,  Cast- Iron,  and  Steel  Work,  etc., 
for  tlie  Havemeyer  Building. 

Conditions. — The  drawings  and  the  specifications  are  in- 
tended to  co-operate ;  but  any  work  shown  on  the  drawings, 
and  not  particularly -described  in  the  specifications,  and  any 
work  evidently  necessary  to  the  complete  finish  of  the  buildT 
ing,  as  specified  or  shown,  is  to  be  done  by  the  contractor 
without  extra  charge,  the  same  as  if  it  were  both  specified  and 
shown. 

The  contractor  is  to  comply  with  the  corporation  ordi- 
nances, the  State,  and  other  laws,  and  is  to  be  liable  for  all 
penalties  and  all  damages  to  life  and  limb  that  may  occur 
owing  to  his  negligence  or  that  of  his  employes  during  the 
erection  of  the  building. 

No  extra  work  will  be  allowed  unless  ordered  by  the  archi- 
tect in  writing.  No  bill  for  extra  work  so  ordered  will  be 
approved  by  the  architect,  unless  it  is  rendered  immediately 
upon  completion  of  the  said  work. 

Sub-contracts  are  to  be  submitted  to  the  architect  for  his 
approval,  and  in  no  case  will  any  work  be  accepted  furnished 
by  sub-contractors  not  approved  of. 

The  architect  will  furnish  drawings  exhibiting  the  work  to 
be  done  by  the  contractor,  and  will  also  furnish  detailed  draw- 
ings for  all  moulded,  carved,  and  ornamental  work ;  and  any 
work  made  without  or  not  in  strict  conformity  with  such  draw- 
ings, or  differing  from  the  requirements  of  the  drawings  and 
the  specifications,  will  be  rejected,  and  must  be  removed  and 
replaced  by  work  in  conformity  with  the  requirements  of  the 
drawings  and  the  specification,  and  all  work  injured  or  de- 
stroyed thereby  must  be  made  good  at  the  contractor's  ex- 
pense. 

Shop  drawings,  copies  of  the  architect's  drawings  fur- 
nished, templets,  reverse  templets,  patterns,  models,  and  all 


120  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

necessary  measurements  at  the  building  are  to  be  made  by 
the  contractor  at  his  own  expense. 

Figured  dimensions  on  the  drawings  are  to  be  followed  in 
all  cases  in  preference  to  scale-measures. 

The  contractor  must  procure  all  necessary  permits  in  con- 
nection with  his  work  and  pay  all  fees  for  the  same. 

The  owner,  through  the  architect,  reserves  the  right  to  an- 
nul and  cancel  the  contract  in  case  the  contractor  neglects  or 
refuses  to  remove  rejected  work  and  to  replace  the  same  as 
above  specified,  and  according  to  the  instructions  of  the  archi- 
tect, within  a  reasonable  time  after  having  been  notified. 

A  schedule  in  detail  of  the  prices  on  which  the  contract  is 
based  is  to  be  furnished  to  the  architect  on  signing  the  con- 
tract, which  schedule  will  be  the  basis  for  all  payments  on  ac- 
count of  the  contract. 

The  contractor  must  properly  protect  his  work  from  injury 
until  the  final  completion  of  the  building  and  the  acceptance 
of  the  sams. 

Any  damage  done  to  work  of  other  contractors  by  the  con- 
tractor, his  sub-contractors,  and  employes  will  be  made  good 
at  the  contractor's  expense. 

Time  of  Completion. — All  the  work  is  to  be  completely 
finished  on  or  before  the  1st  day  of  July,  1892  ;  the  entire 
second  tier  of  beams  must  be  set  on  or  before  the  ist  day  of 
August,  1891  ;  the  roof  tier  of  beams  must  be  set  on  or  before 
the  4th  day  of  January,  1892,  and  all  the  staircases  and  ele- 
vator fronts  must  be  finished  on  or  before  the  1st  day  of 
March,  1892. 

The  work  included  in  this  specification  must  be  prepared 
and  erected  in  its  various  stages  at  such  times  as  may  be 
necessary  to  complete  the  same  and  parts  of  the  same  at  the 
times  mentioned,  and  without  interfering  with  or  delaying  the 
progress  of  the  work  of  other  contractors. 

The  contractor  is  to  provide  all  necessary  night  and  over- 
time work  without  extra  charge. 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  121 

Should  any  delay  occur  in  the  progress  of  the  work  in- 
cluded in  this  specification,  or  should  the  work  of  other  con- 
tractors be  delayed  on  account  of  delay  in  the  iron-work  or  on 
account  of  replacing  or  altering  defective  or  rejected  work,  the 
contractor  is  to  pay  to  Theo.  A.  Havemeyer,  Esq.,  the  sum  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  ($250.00)  as  liquidated  damages 
for  each  and  every  day  that  the  work  is  delayed,  and  for  each 
and  every  day  that  the  iron-work  may  be  unfinished  and  un- 
completed after  the  1st  day  of  July,  1892. 

Payments  will  be  made  only  on  the  certificate  of  the 
architect. 

On  or  about  the  first  day  of  each  month  a  certificate  will  be 
given  by  the  architect  for  a  payment  on  account  of  the  con- 
tract of  eigty-five  per  cent  (85$)  of  the  value  of  the  work  fur- 
nished and  put  up  at  the  building,  provided  the  contractor  has 
made  application  over  his  signature  on  blanks  furnished  by  the 
architect  on  or  before  the  25th  day  of  the  preceding  month, 
and  that  a  schedule  has  been  furnished,  as  before  specified. 

A  certificate  for  the  balance  will  be  given  by  the  architect 
upon  the  completion  of  the  contract,  in  conformity  with  the 
drawings  and  the  specification,  application  having  been  made 
as  before  specified. 

Certificates  will  be  given  by  the  architect,  at  his  option,  on 
or  about  the  1st  day  of  each  month  for  a  payment  on  account 
of  the  contract  of  sixty-five  per  cent  (65$)  of  the  value  of  fin- 
ished work,  set  aside  and  stored  as  hereinafter  provided,  appli- 
cations for  the  same  having  been  made  as  before  specified. 

No  certificate  will  be  given  in  case  any  work  is  furnished 
not  in  strict  conformity  with  the  drawings  and  specifications, 
and  until  defective  work  has  been  removed  and  replaced  as 
specified,  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  architect. 

Any  certificate  given  or  any  payment  made  on  account  of 
the  contract  for  work  furnished  and  erected  in  the  building,  or 
for  materials  finished  and  set  aside,  does  not  act  as  an  ac- 
ceptance of  any  materials  pr  work  which  may  subsequently  be 


122  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

found  to  be  defective  by  reason  of  existing  defects  at  the  time 
such  certificate  is  given  or  payment  made,  or  defects  arising 
from  accidental  injury  or  otherwise,  until  the  completion  of 
the  contract. 

The  contractor  must  replace  all  such  defective  work  on 
which  payments  have  been  made  before  another  certificate 
will  be  issued. 

Sub-contract. — The  contract  for  the  iron-work  will  be 
made  at  the  option  of  the  owner,  a  sub-contract  to  the  gen- 
eral contract  for  the  erection  of  the  building,  and  all  payments 
in  the  manner  described  will  be  made  by  the  general  con- 
tractor, and  the  contractor  will  be  liable  to  the  general  con- 
tractor for  the  proper  performance  of  the  contract,  and  will 
not  be  relieved  of  any  of  the  obligations  herein  specified. 

Materials  and  Workmanship. — All  materials,  of  every 
kind  and  description,  are  to  be  of  the  very  best  quality;  and  all 
work  necessary  to  the  complete  finish  of  the  iron-work,  as 
shown  on  the  drawings  and  as  directed  by  this  specification,  is 
to  be  executed  in  the  most  thorough,  substantial,  neat,  and 
workmanlike  manner,  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  owner 
and  the  architect,  to  whom  every  facility  is  to  be  given  by  the 
contractor  for  inspecting  the  work  as  it  progresses.  All  tests, 
as  required  by  the  law,  are  to  be  made,  the  contractor  paying 
all  expenses. 

The  contractor  is  to  furnish  all  necessary  materials  and 
labor,  and  is  to  provide  all  tools,  derricks,  scaffolding,  planks, 
runs,  horses,  and  all  necessary  mechanical  appliances  for  prop- 
erly prosecuting  the  work.  All  necessary  freights,  cartages, 
and  transportation  and  all  handling  of  materials  must  be  paid 
by  the  contractor. 

Delivery  and  Storage. — The  contractor  is  to  commence 
delivery  and  erect  his  work  as  soon  as  the  building  is  ready  to 
receive  the  same,  and  must  continue  delivering  and  erecting  as 
rapidly  as  possible,  without  interfering  with  or  delaying  the 
work  of  other  contractors. 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  1 23 

After  the  second  tier  of  beams  has  been  set  the  iron-work 
-of  the  various  floors  must  be  carried  up  in  advance  of  the 
mason  work,  so  that  one  tier  of  beams  and  two  tiers  of  pillars 
or  columns  are  set  ahead  of  the  mason-work,  story  to  story. 

The  site  and  the  building  are  not  to  be  used  by  the  contrac- 
tor for  the  storage  of  materials. 

All  finished  work  set  aside  ready  for  delivery,  on  which  a 
payment  on  account  of  the  contract  is  desired,  is  to  be  stored 
and  set  aside  on  premises  properly  housed  and  protected  at  the 
expense  of  the  contractor. 

A  lease  of  these  premises  is  to  be  executed  by  the  contrac- 
tor to  Theo.  A.  Havemeyer,  Esq.,  for  the  time  the  finished 
work  remains  stored  therein.  The  contractor  is  to  be  liable  for 
.all  injury  to  the  finished  work  when  so  stored. 

The  contractor  at  his  expense  must  insure  against  loss  or 
damage  by  fire  all  finished  work  so  stored,  and  assign  the  poli- 
cies of  insurance  to  Theo.  A.  Havemeyer,  Esq.,  as  security  for 
the  advance  that  may  have  been  made  thereon,  and  also  for  the 
performance  by  the  contractor  of  his  agreement  to  repair  such 
damage. 

The  contractor  is  to  keep  the  policies  in  force  until  the 
finished  work  so  stored  shall  be  delivered  at  the  building. 

Wrought-iron. — All  wrought-iron  must  be  tough,  fibrous, 
and  of  uniform  quality,  straight  and  smooth,  free  from  cinder 
pockets  or  injurious  flaws,  buckles,  blisters,  or  cracks.  The  ten- 
sile strength  is  to  be  48,000  to  50,000  pounds  per  square  inch 
of  section,  with  an  elastic  limit  of  24,000  to  26,000  pounds  per 
square  inch  of  section;  the  elongation  not  less  than  12  per 
cent.  The  higher  limits  will  be  required  for  the  rivets,  angle 
plates,  and  knees. 

All  wrought-iron  must,  when  cold,  bend  without  cracking- 
through  1 80  degrees  to  a  curve  whose  diameter  is  not  over 
twice  the  thickness  of  the  specimen.  When  nicked  and  bent 
its  fracture  must  be  nearly  fibrous,  showing  but  few  crystalline 
spots. 


124  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION'  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Steel. — All  steel  is  to  be  mild,  and  must  be  of  uniform 
quality,  straight  and  smooth,  free  from  flaws,  cracks,  or  other 
defects.  The  tensile  strength  is  to  be  60,000  pounds  per  square 
inch  of  section,  with  an  elastic  limit  of  28,000  to  30,000  pounds 
per  square  inch  of  section ;  the  elongation  not  less  than  20 
per  cent. 

All  steel  must  be  capable  when  cold  of  bending  doubles 
flat,  without  sign  of  fracture  on  the  convex  surface  of  the  bend. 

Cast-iron. — All  castings  must  be  of  the  very  best  quality,, 
tough,  gray  iron,  free  from  defects.  No  scrap-iron  is  to  be 
used  or  mixed  with  cast-iron. 

All  the  castings  are  to  be  true,  smooth,  and  straight,  of  a 
uniform  thickness  of  metal,  and  must  be  entirely  free  from 
blow-holes,  honey-combs,  cinders,  seam-marks,  and  other  de- 
fects. 

Tests. — All  materials  used  in  all  stages  of  manufacture 
shall  be  subject  to  full  inspection  and  test  by  the  architect,, 
and  the  contractor  is  to  supply  all  requisite  facilities  for  such 
inspection  and  tests  without  charge.  The  architect  shall  have 
full  power  to  reject  any  of  the  materials  or  parts,  if  in  his  judg- 
ment such  materials  are  not  in  conformity  with  the  specifica- 
tions, at  any  time  before  the  final  completion  and  acceptance 
of  the  work;  and  his  decision  shall  be  final.  All  samples  and 
specimens  are  to  be  prepared  by  the  contractor,  and  all  tests 
are  to  be  made  at  his  expense.  Such  tests  will  be  under  the 
direction  of  the  architect,  who  shall  be  the  sole  judge  of  how 
many  are  necessary,  and  in  what  manner  they  shall  be  made. 

Construction  of  Work. — Where  work  is  specified  as  "good 
and  sufficient,"  or  where  the  work  is  not  fully  explained  by  the 
drawings,  the  contractor  shall  in  all  cases,  before  the  execution 
of  the  work,  submit  to  the  architect  for  his  approval  a  detailed 
specification  for  the  same.  The  architect  shall  be  at  liberty  to 
alter  and  amend  such  specification,  if  in  his  opinion  the  work 
as  described  is  not  of  materials,  proportions,  and  workmanship 
best  adapted  to  the  purpose. 


THE  HAVEMEYEK  BUILDING.  125 

The  minimum  weights  and  sizes 'of  all  girders,  beams,  pil- 
lars, columns,  rods,  bolts,  rivets,  etc.,  are  shown  on  the  drawings 
and  given  in  this  specification  ;  and  any  materials  delivered  at 
the  shops  or  at  the  building  which  are  not  of  the  prescribed 
weights  and  sizes  will  be  rejected  by  the  architect,  to  whom 
every  facility  is  to  be  given  by  the  contractor  for  the  purpose 
of  examining  the  work,  both  at  the  shops  and  at  the  building; 
the  contractor  is  to  do  all  necessary  handling  and  weighing 
without  extra  charge. 

The  screw  threads  of  all  rods  and  bolts  are  to  be  carefully 
cut,  so  that  all  portions  of  the  same  will  be  formed  of  solid 
iron.  No  bolts  or  rods  are  to  be  pieced  or  welded  together. 

The  ends  of  the  bars  and  rods  used  for  bracing  are  to  have 
the  screw  ends  for  the  turn-buckles  upset,  and  all  threads  are 
to  be  carefully  cut. 

Nuts  are  in  all  eases  to  be  extra  heavy.  Sufficient  washers  of 
proper  sizes  and  shapes  are  to  be  provided.  All  rods  used  for 
braces,  counters,  and  sway-rods  are  to  have  turn-buckles.  All 
eye-bars  are  to  have  the  ends  upset,  and  are  to  have  the  pin  and 
bolt  holes  bored.  All  pin  and  bolt  holes  are  to  be  accurately 
bored  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  members,  and  must 
not  be  more  than  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  larger  than  the 
diameter  of  the  pin  or  bolt.  All  holes  in  cast-iron  are  to  be 
bored. 

All  riveted  work  is  to  be  done  in  the  very  best  manner. 
Rivet-holes  may  be  drilled  or  punched,  and  must  not  be  more 
than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the 
rivet ;  if  punched,  the  work  must  be  carefully  done  with  well- 
proportioned  punches  and  dies,  so  that  the  holes  shall  be 
straight,  clean,  and  sharp,  and  that  the  rivets  can  be  driven 
without  drifting,  which  will  not  be  allowed.  When  the  pieces 
to  be  joined  together  are  assembled,  the  holes  through  the 
parts  for  each  rivet  shall  be  strictly  in  line  and  normal  to  the 
surfaces ;  if  a  slight  misfit  should  occur  the  holes  must  be  truly 
reamed  to  the  required  size  and  larger  rivets  must  be  used. 


126  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

After  the  riveting  is  done,  the  pieces  joined  together  shall  be 
closely  in  contact  throughout,  and  the  rivets  shall  be  tight ; 
fill  the  holes  perfectly  and  have  full  semi-spherical  heads  con- 
centric to  the  rivet-holes.  Rivet-heads  are  to  be  countersunk 
wherever  necessary  for  bearings.  All  rivets  are  to  be  made  of 
the  very  best  refined  iron.  The  pitch  of  rivets  shall  not  exceed 
6  inches,  nor  be  less  than  three  diameters  of  the  rivet.  Rivets 
f-in.,  -J-in.,  and  i-in.  diameter  will  be  used.  Except  for  bars 
less  than  2^  in.  wide,  the  distance  between  the  edges  of  any 
piece  and  the  centre  of  the  rivet-hole  must  not  be  less  than  \\ 
in. ;  where  practicable  it  shall  be  at  least  twice  the  diameter  of 
the  rivet.  All  joints  in  riveted  work  must  be  fully  spliced,  and 
the  ends  before  splicing  must  be  dressed  straight  and  true,  so 
that  there  will  be  no  open  joints. 

All  the  beam  framing  throughout  is  to  be  riveted,  and  the 
fastenings  to  the  pillars  and  columns  are  to  be  riveted.  All 
the  pillars  and  columns  are  to  be  riveted,  pitch  to  be  4  in.,  and 
in  all  cases  the  five  end  rivets  are  to  have  the  minimum  pitch. 
All  brackets  and  lugs  on  the  pillars  and  columns  are  to  be 
.riveted. 

Box  girders  are  to  be  riveted  in  the  same  manner;  the 
plates  for  the  flanges  and  webs  are  to  be  riveted  together  by 
.means  of  angle-irons;  pitch  of  rivets  is  to  be  4  in.  Heavy 
cast-iron  filling  pieces,  with  lugs  and  flanges/ fitting  accurately 
the  flanges  and  webs,  are  to  be  placed  at  the  ends  and  4  feet 
•  apart,  through  which  the  webs  are  to  be  boUed  together  with 
J-in.  bolts,  not  over  6  in.  between  centres. 

For  the  bearings  of  the  beams,  angle-irons,  riveted  to  the 
webs  are  to  be  provided. 

All  riveted  work  must  be  perfectly  true  and  straight. 

All  knees,  angles,  and  connecting  parts  in  the  various  fram- 
ings are  to  be  of  wrought-iron,  all  well  riveted  and  bolted.  No 
cast-iron  is  to  be  used.  All  angle  plates  and  knees  are  to  be 
-bent  while  hot,  and  across  the  fibre  of  the  metal ;  when  finished 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  12 7 

they  shall  be  free  from  cracks  and  seams,  without  initial  strain, 
and  with  the  full  strength  of  the  plates  preserved. 

All  the  girders  between  the  columns  on  all  the  stories  (ex- 
cept on  the  second  tier  between  G  and  £2,  H  and  If 2)  are  to 
be  set  so  that  the  bottom  flange  is  ij  in.  below  the  bottom  of 
the  beams  and  the  beams  framing  into  the  same  are  to  be  cut 
off  square  to  fit  the  web  of  the  girders.  In  all  cases  wedge 
foot-blocks  on  which  the  beams  rest  are  to  be  provided,  riveted' 
to  the  bottom  flange  of  the  beams  or  girders;  the  bearing  ia 
all  cases  must  be  uniform  without  wedge  or  blocking.  Where 
beams  are  framed  into  headers  and  trimmers  they  are  to  be 
flush  on  the  bottom,  and  the  ends  of  the  beams  are  to  be  cut 
to  fit  accurately  the  shape  of  the  beam  on  which  they  rest. 
All  beams  throughout  must  be  secured  in  position  by  angle- 
irons  and  rivets.  The  angle-irons  are  to  be  3^-  in.  x  3i  in.  and 
as  long  as  the  web  of  the  beams,  and  placed  each  side  of  same. 
Six  f-in.  rivets  are  to  be  used  for  all  beams  10  in.  or  less  ia 
depth,  and  nine  |-in.  rivets  for  all  other  beams.  Beams  and 
girders  are  to  be  secured  in  the  same  manner  to  the  pillars,, 
columns,  and  plate  girders  ;  channel  bars  are  to  be  framed  in 
the  same  manner. 

Girders  formed  of  two  or  more  beams  are  to  have  inserted 
between  the  webs  of  the  beams,  not  more  than  6  feet  apart, 
and  at  the  ends  blocks  of  cast-iron  fitting  accurately  the  form 
of  the  beams  cast  with  proper  lugs  and  flanges,  through  which 
the  beams  are  to  be  bolted  together  by  two  f-in.  bolts  for  all 
beams  over  10  in.  in  depth,  and  one  bolt  for  all  beams  of  10  in. 
and  less  depth. 

The  girders  of  all  the  tiers  of  beams  located  between  the 
columns  D  and  Di,  D2  and  Z>3,  K  and  K\,  K2  and  K^  are 
each  to  be  made  of  two  12-in.  channel  bars,  20  Ibs.  per  foot 
each.  These  girders  are  to  have  wrought-iron  packing  pieces 
placed  between  the  webs  opposite  the  ends  of  the  beams  fram- 
ing into  the  same,  and  through  which  the  rivets  are  to  pass. 
The  ends  of  these  girders  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  pillar?  or 


*28  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

•columns  by  means  of  angle-irons  placed  back  to  back  with 
packing  pieces  between  them,  riveted  to  the  pillars  or  columns 
and  girders.  The  web  of  each  channel  bar  (of  the  girders)  at 
the  end  where  the  pin-hole  for  the  bracing  is  located  is  to  be 
reinforced  by  a  £-in.  thick  wrought-iron  plate  9  in.  X  12  in., 
secured  by  six  J-in.  rivets. 

All  girders  formed  of  channel  bars  are  to  have  -f-in.  thick 
and  8-in.  wide  top  plates  riveted  to  the  flanges  with  f-in.  rivets, 
pitch  5  in.  These  top  plates  are  to  be  of  sufficient  length,  ex- 
tending within  £  in.  of  the  cross-bracing. 

All  beams  and  girders  carrying  walls  are  to  have  f-in.  thick 
iron  plates,  the  full  width  of  the  wall,  except  otherwise  directed, 
securely  riveted  to  the  upper  flanges  ;  rivets  to  have  8-in.  pitch 
and  countersunk  heads.  Short  plates  are  to  be  provided  near 
the  ends  of  the  beams  from  A  to  F  and  G  to  N  on  the  base- 
ment tier,  and  circular  plates  under  the  area  wall  opposite  piers 
A  and  N. 

The  bearings  on  the  walls  of  all  beams,  girders,  and  lintels 
must  be  full  and  true,  not  less  than  6  in.  at  each  end.  Beams 
having  a  span  of  over  20  feet,  and  girders,  are  to  have  bearings 
on  the  walls  of  not  less  than  10  in. ;  lintels  over  openings  more 
than  5  feet  wide  are  to  have  I  inch  additional  bearing  for  each 
additional  foot  of  span. 

The  construction  of  the  pillar  and  column  connections,  the 
base  plates  and  the  other  work,  is  to  be  made  as  hereinafter 
specified. 

The  substitution  of  pipes,  thimbles,  or  other  devices  for 
filling  pieces,  blockings,  packing  pieces,  etc.,  as  specified,  will 
not  be  permitted  under  any  circumstances. 

The  contractor  is  to  do  all  drilling  and  tapping  of  iron-work 
that  may  be  required,  and  is  to  furnish  all  necessary  machine 
screws  and  bolts  for  fastening  wood  and  other  work. 

Setting>.-~All  the  iron-work  throughout  is  to  be  set  in  the 
very  best  manner;  all  bearings  are  to  be  full  and  true- — the 
contractor  providing  all  necessary  scaffolding,  trestling,  centres, 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  129 

shores,  and  oraces  that  may  be  required.  In  all  cases  the  work 
must  be  bolted  and  riveted  together  as  it  progresses.  All 
beams,  girders,  and  lintels  are  to  be  set  level,  and  the  beams  and 
girders  of  the  staircase  opening,  shafts,  and  well-holes  are  to  be 
set  plumb  over  one  another.  All  columns  are  to  be  set  per- 
fectly plumb  on  true  beds. 

All  iron-work,  comprising  fascias,  railings,  and  other  work 
connected  with  the  masonry,  must  be  well  fitted,  and  the  joints 
are  to  be  leaded. 

A  sufficient  number  of  men  must  be  kept  at  the  building,  at 
the  contractor's  expense,  to  do  all  necessary  cutting,  fitting, 
and  drilling  that  may  be  required. 

Painting". — All  the  iron-work  is  to  be  properly  and  thor- 
oughly cleaned  from  rust  and  cinders,  and  is  to  receive  one  coat 
of  metallic  paint  and  pure  linseed  oil,  well  brushed  in.  A  good 
coat  of  the  best  light  boiled  linseed  oil  is  to  be  applied  to  all 
surfaces  in  contact  before  they  are  riveted  together.  The 
paint  is  to  be  allowed  to  dry  before  the  work  is  delivered  at 
the  building. 

The  cast-iron  lintels  for  the  windows  in  the  rear  walls  are 
to  be  painted  with  two  good  coats  of  red  lead,  allowed  to  dry 
before  they  are  set. 

After  the  work  has  been  set,  it  is  to  be  painted  another  coat 
of  the  same  kind  of  paint  before  it  is  built  in.  Prince's  metallic 
paint  or  Rossie  iron  ore  paint  is  to  be  used.  Pure  linseed  oil 
only  is  to  be  used  for  the  paint. 

All  cast-iron  work  exposed  to  view  is  to  be  well  filled,  and 
rubbed  down  to  a  smooth  surface  before  the  paint  is  applied. 

Beams  and  Channel  Bars  of  such  sizes  and  weights  as 
shown- on  the  drawings,  and  as  hereinafter  specified,  are  to  be 
provided  and  set  for  all  the  various  tiers,  and  wherever  neces- 
sary and  required  to  form  proper  supports  for  the  floor  arching, 
vault  arching,  and  roof  arching.  All  beams,  channels,  etc.,  not 
shown  are  to  be  "good  and  sufficient." 


130  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

All  beams  supporting  the  elevator  sheaves  will  be  provided 
under  another  contract. 

The  ends  of  all  girders,  beams  and  channel  bars  resting  on 
pillars  or  columns  are  to  be  riveted  at  each  bearing  with  two 
f-in.  rivets  through  the  flanges,  and  the  girders  of  all  tiers  of 
beams  are  to  have  two  •*$'  X  *$\"  angle  irons  riveted  to  the 
pillars  or  columns,  and  to  the  webs  of  the  girders  with  9f-in. 
rivets.  The  ends  of  girders  formed  of  channel-bars  are  to  be 
riveted  at  the  flanges,  and  with  angle  irons  with  packing  pieces 
as  before  specified. 

The  beams  between  A2  and  C2  on  the  second  tier  are  to 
have  3"  X  3"  angle  irons,  riveted  to  the  web  to  receive  the  high, 
level  floor  arching. 

At  the  foot  of  the  main  stairs  (ground  floor)  between  Gi 
and  Hi  two  beams  are  to  be  provided,  placed  over  one  another, 
for  the  high  and  low  level  floor  arching. 

The  bent  channel-bar  for  the  floor  arching  of  the  elevator 
halls  on  the  first  story  and  on  all  stories  above  is  to  be  carried 
at  each  pier  on  6-in.  beams,  4  ft.  long,  to  which  it  is  to  be  riveted 
with  two  f-in.  rivets  to  each  beam,  and  the  portion  over  the 
entrances  is  to  be  hung  by  means  of  three  3^"  X  i"  stirrup- 
irons,  properly  shaped  and  riveted. 

Over  the  bent  channel-bars  at  all  the  elevator  door  open- 
ings, to  form  a  support  for  the  saddles,  provide  and  set  6-in. 
beams,  16  Ibs.  per  foot,  properly  supported  on  upright  beams 
of  the  same  kind,  placed  on  top  of  the  cantilever  beams  carry- 
ing the  bent  channel-bars,  all  to  be  properly  framed,  fastened, 
and  riveted. 

The  beams  for  the  deck-house  roof  are  to  be  of  such  sizes 
as  hereinafter  specified. 

Channel-bars  not  less  than  8-in.  deep  are  to  be  provided  in 
all  cases  for  supporting  the  floor,  vault  and  roof  arches  at  the 
walls  and  piers,  and  are  to  be  set  with  a  2-inch  bearing  on 
the  walls  the  full  length. 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  13! 

All  beams  and  channel-bars  are  to  have  properly  drilled  or 
punched  rivet-holes  and  holes  for  tie-rods. 

All  beams  and  channel-bars  are  to  be  of  mild  steel  of  the 
standard  weights  and  sizes  made  by  Carnegie,  Phipps  &  Co., 
Ltd.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. ;  or  of  other  equally  good  make,  of  the 
same  or  larger  sectional  areas  for  beams  and  bars  of  the  same 
depth. 

Beams  and  channel-bars  of  less  sectional  area  in  the  flanges, 
or  of  lighter  weights  than  those  above  mentioned,  will  not  be 
accepted  under  any  circumstances  ;  and  if»  furnished,  set,  and 
fastened,  they  must  be  removed  promptly  upon  notification 
from  the  architect. 

In  case  the  contractor  cannot  furnish  steel  beams  of  the 
kind  required,  he  shall  be  at  liberty,  with  the  approval  of  the 
architect,  to  furnish  wrought-iron  beams  and  bars,  the  moments 
of  inertia  of  which  are  larger  than  those  of  the  corresponding 
steel  beams  and  bars,  and  calculated  with  an  ultimate  strain 
not  exceeding  15,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  All  such 
beams  and  bars  are  to  be  "  good  and  sufficient,"  and  the  con- 
tractor is  to  furnish  to  the  architect  for  his  approval  a  detailed 
list  of  all  such  beams  and  bars  before  work  is  commenced. 

Girders  made  of  two  or  more  beams,  as  before  specified, 
are  to  be  provided  as  shown  on  the  drawings. 

Box  Girders,  made  as  before  specified,  are  to  be  provided 
and  set  as  shown  on  the  girders. 

The  following  box  girders  will  be  required  for  supporting 
the  tank-house  floor  beams : 


T                        rx     ,,      Thickness          Size  of 
DePth"     of  webs.         Flanges. 

Angle  Irons.          Rivets. 

G2-  G4            I  ; 

5"        t" 

13"  x  if 

34"  X  34"  X  1" 

i" 

H2-H^        15 

r 

13"  x  ir 

34"  x  34"  x  4" 

i" 

Tie-rods. — Are  to  be  not  less  than  one  inch  in  diameter^ 
and  are  to  be  provided  for  all  beams  and  channel-bars. 


132  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

All  are  to  be  placed  in  continuous  rows,  at  right  angles  with 
the  webs  of  the  beams  and  channels. 

All.  beams  are  to  have  one  row  of  tie-rods,  placed  equidis- 
tant between  the  bearings.  The  ends  of  all  beams  and  channel- 
bars,  not  sufficiently  fixed  laterally  by  iron  or  mason-work, 
are  to  have  additional  tie-rods ;  and  additional  tie-rods  are  to 
be  provided  wherever  required. 

All  tie-rods  are  to  be  properly  tightened  before  the  arches 
are  built. 

Anchors,  Straps,  Clamps,  etc. — Provide  and  deliver  at 
the  building  all  necessary  anchors,  clamps,-  and  dowels  for  the 
stone-work ;  each  piece  of  stone  is  to  be  anchored,  and  all  cop- 
ings of  wall  and  boiler-flue  stack  are  to  be  clamped.  All  are 
to  be  made  of  i£"  X  f"  wrought  iron,  of  proper  length,  and  of 
such  shapes  as  may  be  directed. 

Provide  for  the  mason  all  necessary  anchors  for  the  corner 
piers  A,  A4,  N,  and  N3,  which  are  to  be  anchored  on  every 
story  (except  where  continuous  tie-rods  are  hereinafter  speci- 
fied) as  follows:  pier  A  to  Ai  and  B,  pier  A4  to  A2,  pier  N  to 
Ni  and  M,  pier  N3  to  N2.  These  anchors  are  to  extend  from 
centre  to  centre  of  the  piers,  and  are  to  be  made  flat  of  2j"  X 
•J"  iron  with  a  ij  in.,  i6-in.  long  spear  at  each  end. 

Pro'jide  for  the  mason  all  necessary  anchors  for  anchoring 
the  corners  of  the  walls,  every  four  feet,  to  be  made  of  i£"x  f" 
iron,  4  feet  long,  with  a  i-in.  diameter  i6-inch  long  spear  at  each 
end.  These  anchors  are  to  be  used  where  the  walls  and  piers 
are  not  carried  up  at  the  same  time. 

Provide  for  the  mason  20  anchors  for  each  story  from 
ground  floor  to  the  I3th  story,  for  anchoring  the  exterior  circu- 
lar wall  to  the  interior  piers,  these  anchors  are  each  to  be  about 
8  ft.  long  and  made  of  ij"  X  f"  iron  with  a  i6-in.  long  ij-in. 
diameter  spear  at  each  end  ;  at  the  piers  one  spear  may  be  used 
for  two  anchors.  These  anchors  are  to  be  set  edgewise  against 
the  face  of  the  thin  walls  on  the  machine  shaft  side. 

Provide  for  the  mason  flat  tie  anchors  for  the  walls  enclos- 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  133 

ing  the  elevator  shafts  at  G2  and  H2  ;  these  tie  anchors  are  to 
be  made  of  4"  X  J-"  iron  with  16  in.  long,  I  in.  diameter  spears, 
and  are  to  be  placed  two  in  the  height  of  every  story. 

Provide  for  the  mason  all  necessary  anchors,  rods,  bolts, 
cantilevers,  and  clamps  for  the  terra-cotta  work.  All  the  trim- 
mings of  all  facades,  above  the  stone-work  on  the  ground  floor, 
will  be  terra-cotta. 

Each  projecting  piece,  arch-blocks,  caps,  etc.,  will  be 
anchored,  and  plates  and  rods  are  to  be  provided  for  the  bal- 
usters. Cantilevers  are  to  be  provided  for  the  four  cornices, 
including  the  blocks,  over  the  caryatides  on  the  nth  story. 
The  cantilevers  for  the  main  cornice  are  to  be  made  of  4-inch 
beams,  placed  about  2  feet  apart  (one  in  each  block) ;  a  6-in. 
beam  extending  from  pier  to  pier  is  to  rest  on  top  of  the  inner 
•end  of  the  cantilevers  .or  is  to  be  framed  to  the  same  ;  canti- 
levers of  4"  X  4"  tee-irons,  placed  about  2  feet  apart,  are  to  be 
provided  for  the  three  other  cornices. 

Anchors  are  to  be  made  £"  X  i"  and  f  "  X  i  J"  iron,  of  such 
shapes  and  lengths  as  may  be  directed.  Rods  for  balusters  are 
to  be  I  in.  diameter,  with  necessary  plates,  washers,  and  nuts 
— all  as  may  be  directed. 

All  anchors,  clamps,  dowels,  and  rods  above  specified  are  to 
be  galvanized. 

Provide  for  the  mason  all  necessary  lengths  of  \"  X  2-"  bar 
iron  for  man-hole  openings  in  fire  proof  partitions  and  fur- 
rings,  as  may  be  directed. 

The  ends  of  all  beams  and  girders  resting  on  a  wall  or  pier 
are  to  have  if "  X  i"  iron  anchors,  each  bolted  to  the  web  with 
two  J  in.  bolts,  and  the  other  end  turned  around  a  i-in.  diame- 
ter wrought-iron  spear  16  in.  long,  set  vertically,  and  in  no 
case  lessthan  4  inches  from  the  end  of  the  beam  or  girder. 

Beams  and  girders  resting  on  tops  of  pillars,  colums,  and  gir- 
ders, where  they  abut  or  are  placed  opposite  one  another,  are 
to  be  strapped  together  by  means  of  if-"  X  J-"  wrought-ircn 


134  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

straps,  of  proper  lengths,  riveted  to  the  end  of  each  beam  and 
girder  with  two  f-in.  rivets  at  each  end. 

The  channel-bars  are  to  be  provided  with  bent  anchors 
made  of  £"  X  %"  iron,  bolted  to  the  ends  of  the  tie-rods. 

All  necessary  anchors  are  to  be  provided  for  the  light  cast- 
iron  work  hereinafter  specified. 

Tie-bars. — Provide  and  set  three  lines  of  continuous  tie- 
bars,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  exterior  walls,  anchored  with 
a  ij-in.  diameter  i6-in.  long  spear  at  each  pier,  extending  en- 
tirely around  the  building.  One  set  of  tie-bars  is  to  be  located 
on  the  line  with  the  3d  story  floor,  one  set  on  the  line  with  the 
nth  story  floor,  and  the  other  set  is  to  be  on  the  line  of  the 
1 3th  story  floor  on  all  the  rear  walls  and  over  the  I3th  story- 
window  arches  on  all  the  front  walls.  These  tie-bars  are  to  be 
made  of  4"  X  £"  iron,  with  upset  ends  and  the  holes  are  to  be 
drilled. 

Sway-braces. — Diagonal  sway-braces  are  to  be  provided 
and  set  between  the  ends  of  the  girders,  located  between  D  and 
Di,  D2  and  D3,  K  and  Ki,  K2  and  K3,  on  each  story  from 
the  basement  girders  to  the  roof  girders. 

All  the  rods  used  for  the  sway-braces  are  to  be  I  J-in.  diame- 
ter except  those  on  the  I2th  story,  which  are  to  be  i-in.  diame- 
ter, and  those  on  the  I3th  story,  which  are  to  be  J-in.  diameter. 
Each,  rod  is  to  be  made  in  two  sections,  and  each  section  is  to 
have  the  ends  upset  for  the  eyes  and  the  screw  ends. 

Turn-buckles  are  to  be  provided  for  all  rods.  The  upset 
screw  ends  of  the  rods  are  to  be  if-in.  diameter  for  the  i^-in. 
diameter  rods,  if-in.  diameter  for  the  i-in.  diameter  rods,  and  i- 
in.  diameter  for  the  f-in.  diameter  rods  ;  in  all  cases  the  screw 
threads  are  to  be  carefully  cut.  The  eyes  of  the  rods  are  to  be 
properly  made  with  upset  ends,  having  full  sectional  areas ;  the 
pin  holes  are  to  be  bored  ;  the  I  J-in.  and  i-in.  diameter  rods 
are  to  have  the  ends  flattened  to  -J"  thickness. 

All  the  pins  are  to  be  i  J"  diameter  except  those  of  the  i3th 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  135 

story  girders,  which  are  to  be  I  J-in.  diameter,  and  those  of  the 
roof  girders,  which  are  to  be  I  in.  diameter. 

All  pins  are  to  have  proper  heads,  nuts,  washers,  and  pack- 
ing pieces. 

All  sway-bracing  must  be  put  in  place  and  properly 
tightened  as  the  erection  of  the  work  advances,  story  by  story. 

Lintels  of  Cast  Iron  are  to  be  provided  for  all  openings 
in  the  masonry,  except  otherwise  specified  or  directed.  The 
flanges  are  to  be  the  full  width  of  the  walls  and  piers,  except 
for  openings  in  the  walls  of  the  fagades  on  the  three  streets, 
which  are  to  be  the  width  of  the  backing.  All  window 
openings  with  square  and  round  heads  are  to  have  cast-iron 
lintels,  and  in  all  cases  the  lintels  for  double  windows  are 
to  be  made  to  extend  over  both  windows.  The  lintels  for 
openings  in  curved  walls  are  to  have  the  outside  flanges  made 
•on  the  curve  and  the  webs  straight. 

The  lintels  for  the  windows  in  the  rear  walls  are  to  be  made 
with  a  rebate  for  receiving  the  heads  of  the  window  frames. 
The  exposed  part  of  these  lintels  are  to  be  finished  smooth 
and  clean. 

In  all  cases  where  the  window  openings  have  flat  arches,  the 
lintels  are  to  be  placed  over  the  same  as  shown  and  as  may  be 
directed. 

The  inner  lintels  of  windows  in  elevator  shafts  and  of  the 
openings  to  the  pipe  shafts  on  the  2d  and  4th  stories  are  to  be 
drilled  and  tapped,  and  large  brass  screws  are  to  be  provided 
for  fastening  the  marble  soffits. 

All  lintels  exposed  to  view  are  to  have  the  exposed  parts 
finished. 

The  webs  of  all  lintels  are  to  be  four  inches*  high  at  the 
ends,  and  are  to  have  a  rise  of  I1  inches  for  every  foot  of  span. 

Lintels  are  to  have  skewbacks  wherever  required. 

All  lintels  over  16  inches  wide  are  to  have  two  webs,  or 
lintels  are  to  be  placed  side  by  side. 

All  lintels  (not  carrying  floor  beams)   over  openings   not 


136  SKELE  TON  CONS  TR  UC TION  IN  B  UILDINGS. 

over  6  ft.  wide  are  to  have  i-in.  thick  flanges  and  webs,  and 
over  6  ft.  and  not  over  8  ft.  they  are  to  be  \\  in.  thick,  and 
over  8  ft.  I  £  in.  thick.  In  special  cases  the  lintels  are  to  be 
"  good  and  sufficient." 

Pillars  of  Wrought  Iron. — All  the  pillars  throughout  for 
supporting  the  girders,  beams,  and  other  parts  of  the  building 
are  to  be  made  of  4  wrought-iron  plates,  riveted  together  by 
means  of  4  angle  irons.  All  the  plates  and  angle  irons  are  to- 
be  perfect  in  every  respect ;  all  finished  with  clean,  sharp  edges. 

In  all  cases  the  girders  and  beams  are  to  rest  on  4  in.  X  4  in. 
X  i\  in.  angle  iron  brackets,  riveted  to  the  pillars  with  not  less 
than  foiir  f-in.  rivets  for  those  under  the  girders  and  three  J-in. 
rivets  for  those  under  the  beams.  The  ends  of  all  beams  and 
girders  are  to  be  riveted  to  these  brackets  with  two  j-in.  rivets. 
In  addition,  the  ends  of  the  webs  of  all  beams  and  girders  are 
to  be  riveted  to  the  pillars  with  angle-irons  as  before,  specified. 

All  pillars  are  to  have  cast-iron  base  plates,  hereinafter 
specified. 

The  ends  of  all  pillars  are  to  have  four  3  in.  X  3  in.  X  f  in* 
angle  brackets,  riveted  with  not  less  than  two  f-in.  rivets. 

The  ends  of  all  pillars,  after  the  angle  brackets  have  beers 
riveted  on,  are  to  be  turned  off  in  a  lathe  at  right  angles  with, 
the  axis  of  the  pillars. 

Wrought-iron  plates,  faced  off  on  both  sides,  not  less  thani 
one  inch  thick,  finished,  are  to  be  placed  between  the  ends  of 
all  pillars ;  the  faces  are  to  be  parallel  to  one  another,  and  the 
plates  are  to  be  of  sufficient  size  to  afford  full  bearings  for  the 
angle  brackets;  the  plates  of  the  pillars  next  to  the  masonry 
piers  are  to  have  a  sufficient  projection  beyond  the  angle 
brackets  for  securing  the  wall  anchors.  In  all  cases  where  a 
pillar  of  smaller  dimensions  is  placed  on  a  larger  one,  an  addi- 
tional plate  of  the  same  kind  and  thickness  is  to  be  provided. 

The  tops  of  the  pillars  are  to  have  angle  brackets  and  J-in. 
thick  plates. 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.   .  137 

The  bearings  of  all  pillars  throughout  are  to  be  full  and 
true  ;  no  shimming  or  wedging  will  be  allowed. 

In  all  cases  where  necessary,  packing  pieces  are  to  be  used 
back  of  the  angle  brackets. 

All  pillars  are  to  be  riveted  together  through  the  angle 
brackets  and  plates,  with  not  less  than  six  f -in.  rivets. 

All  pillars  at  the  exterior  piers  are  to  be  securely  anchored 
to  the  mason-work  with  special  anchors,  made  of  5  in.  X  f  in. 
iron,  riveted  with  two  J-in.  rivets  to  the  under  side  of  the 
plates,  extending  to  the  centre  of  the  piers  and  turned  around 
at  i  J-in.  diam.,  i6-in.  long  spar. 

These  anchors  are  to  be  galvanized. 

The  pillars  Bi,  B2,  63,  Gi,  C2,Di,  D2,  Ei,  £2,  Fi,  F2,  Gi, 
Hi,  Ii,  12,  Ji,  J2,  Ki,  K2,  Li,  L2,  Mi  and  M2  are  each  to  be 
made  in  one  length,  extending  through  the  cellar  and  base- 
ment stories* 

16.  Pillars  in  vaults  composed  of  4 — 3^  in.  X  3^  in.  x£  in. 
angle-irons  f-in.  rivets,  riveted  together  in  shape  of  a  —|— . 

Posts. — The  two  posts  carrying  the  tank-hou.se  floor  at  03 
and  H3  are  to  be  made  of  12-in.  steel  beams,  40  Ibs.  per  foot ; 
the  girders  and  beams  resting  on  the  same  are  to  have  angle 
brackets  and  knees,  all  perfectly  riveted. 

The  posts  in  the  east-vault  walls  in  cellar  and  basement 
shown  on  the  plans  are  to  be  made  of  io-in.,  33  Ibs.  per  foot, 
beams,  each  in  one  piece,  and  all  are  to  have  base-plates  and 
lo-inch  channel-bars  framed  to  the  top.  All  connections  are 
to  be  fitted,  framed,  and  riveted  the  same  as  specified  for 
beams. 

All  other  posts  that  may  be  required  for  supports  are  to  be 
made  of  beams  "good  and  sufficient." 

Cast-iron  Base-plates  are  to  be  provided  for  all'the  pillars 
and  columns  in  the  cellar,  as  shown.  These  base-plates  are  to 
be  cast  with  flanges,  ribs,  webs,  and  rings,  as  shown  ;  the  thick- 
ness of  the  shell  and  of  the  bottom  and  top  flanges  is  to  be  i£ 
in.,  and  the  other  parts  not  less  than  i£  in.  thick. 


138  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

The  castings  are  to  be  perfectly  sound.  The  bottom 
flanges  and  rings  on  which  the  columns  rest  are  to  be  faced 
off  in  a  lathe  parallel  to  each  other.  All  base-plates  are  to  be 
bedded  solid  in  Portland  cement  on  the  granite  caps.  The 
base-plates  of  the  pillars  and  columns  04,  H4,  are  to  be  made 
as  shown  ;  the  metal  is  to  be  I  in.  thick. 

The  base-plates  under  the  posts  and  under  the  pillars  sup- 
porting the  area  wall  are  to  be  i-J  in.  thick. 

Roofs. — The  main  roof  is  to  be  built  as  shown  on  the 
deck-house  plan.  The  roof  of  the  deck-house  is  to  be  built  as 
follows :  the  pillars  on  columns  C2,  D2,  F2,  G2,  H2,  12,  J2,  K2, 
and  L2  are  carried  up  supporting  a  girder  10  in.  deep,  33  Ibs. 
per  foot.  Soffits  are  to  be  prepared  with  necessary  angle- 
irons,  prepared  to  receive  the  necessary  wire  lathing. 

Staircases. — All  the  staircases  throughout  are  to  be  built 
of  iron,  with  iron,  marble,  and  slate  steps  and  platforms,  as 
hereinafter  specified.  Strings  are  to  be  made  of  wrought  and 
cast  iron,  with  wrought  and  cast  iron  ornamental  face-work ; 
wall-strings  are  to  be  of  cast-iron  with  ornamental  face-work, 
accurately  fitted  and  properly  supported.  In  all  cases  the 
ends  of  the  wall-strings  are  to  be  properly  made  to  fit  the 
base,  and  the  under  side  is  to  finish  properly  at  the  plastering. 

In  all  cases  the  floor  beams  at  the  landings  are  to  be 
covered  with  faciae  and  moulding  extending  from  the  walls  to 
the  newel-posts  and  between  the  newels.  All  the  work  to  be 
ornamented  and  finished  on  both  sides.  The  under  side  of 
the  platforms  and  landings  are  to  be  finished  with  ornamental 
ribs  and  panels.  All  the  platforms  of  the  main  staircase  and 
the  platforms  of  the  other  staircases  are  to  be  supported  on 
every  story  by  means  of  four  3-in.  angle  or  tee-irons  placed 
vertically  and  extending  from  the  tops  of  the  beams  to  the 
bottoms  cf  the  beams  above,  to  which  each  is  to  be  bolted  at 
each  end  with  the  necessary  angles  and  knees  and  six  f-in 
bolts. 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.       .  139 

Newels  are  to  have  caps,  drops,  panelled,  moulded,  and 
ornamented  shafts,  as  shown  and  as  may  be  directed. 

In  all  cases  the  staircase  walls  are  to  be  made  to  correspond 
with  the  staircase  strings,  the  full  thickness  of  the  floor. 

All  risers  are  to  be  of  cast-iron,  moulded  on  both  sides. 
The  starts  of  all  staircases,  where  directed,  are  to  have 
moulded  and  cast-iron  jib  panels,  vertical  panels,  and  soffits,  as 
shown  and  as  directed. 

The  steps  from  the  low  to  high  level  on  the  ground  floor 
in  the  Church  Street  entrance  hall  are  to  be  built  with  con- 
cealed strings  at  the  ends  and  two  intermediate  strings. 

All  the  railings  are  to  be  made  of  wrought  and  cast  iron. 
The  posts  and  balusters  are  to  be  of  polished  wrought-iron ; 
those  of  the  main  staircase  are  to  be  twisted.  All  are  to  be 
provided  with  ornamental  cast-iron  sockets  and  panels,  and  the 
top-rail  is  to  be  of  wrought-iron,  prepared  to  receive  the  wood 
hand-rail,  except  the  railings  of  the  stairs  to  the  cellar  near  A2 
and  Gi,  which  are  to  be  made  as  hereinafter  specified. 

The  horizontal  railings  of  the  staircases  are  to  be  made  in 
the  same  manner,  to  correspond. 

The  steps  from  the  low  to  the  high  level  on  the  ground 
floor,  the  main  stairs  from  the  ground  floor  to  the  thirteenth 
story,  the  stairs  from  the  thirteenth  story  to  the  deck-house, 
and  the  two  staircases  from  the  basement  to  the  first  story  are 
to  have  treads,  platforms,  and  landings  of  the  very  best  quality 
of  pink  Knoxville  marble  i^  in.  thick,  finished  with  nosings  on 
the  fronts  and  with  nosings  on  the  returns,  except  the  enclosed 
steps,  which  are  to  have  nosings  on  the  fronts  only.  Each 
tread  is  to  be  in  one  piece,  and  the  platforms  are  to  be  made 
in  one,  t.wo,  and  three  pieces  each.  In  no  case  are  the  pieces 
to  be  less  in  width  than  the  stairs  by  the  width  of  the  platform. 
The  platform  of  the  landing  at  the  deck-house  floor  is  to  be 
made  in  one  piece. 

All  steps  and  platforms  are  to  be  securely  fastened  by 
means  of  screws  and  leaded  holes. 


140  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

All  the  marble-work  must  be  delivered  in  perfect  condition, 
free  from  scratches,  spalls,  and  other  defects. 

The  risers  of  the  two  steps  in  the  Church  Street  entrance 
hall  are  to  be  of  the  very  best  quality  polished  Alps  green 
marble,  set  and  fastened  in  the  very  best  manner. 

All  the  marble  steps  and  platforms  are  to  be  polished  in 
the  very  best  manner  on  all  sides  except  the  tops,  which  are  to 
be  rubbed. 

All  joints  are  to  be  made  uniform  and  close,  and  are  to  ba 
properly  pointed. 

On  completion  of  the  building  all  the  marble-work  is  to 
be  oiled  one  good  coat  of  pure  linseed  oil,  well  rubbed  down. 

The  two  staircases  from  the  cellar  to  the  basement  story 
near  A2  and  Gi  are  to  have  the  treads  and  platforms  made  of 
cast-iron  -J-  in.  thick,  diamond  pattern,  with  nosings,  and  the 
risers  are  to  be  cast  with  segment  openings,  all  properly  fitted 
and  bolted  to  the  strings.  Proper  supports  and  hangers  are  to 
be  provided  for  these  staircases.  The  railings  are  to  be  made 
of  f-in  round  iron,  bolted  to  the  strings,  properly  braced,  to 
have  a  wrought-iron  top  rail  and  moulded  capping.  The 
newels  are  to  be  cast-iron,  plain  moulded,  with  caps  and  drops. 

As  soon  as  the  iron-work  of  the  staircases  has  been  set,  the 
same  is  to  be  covered  with  boxing,  and  temporary  wood  treads, 
and  platforms  are  to  be  provided,  all  properly  fastened.  After 
the  marble  and  slate  treads  and  platforms  have  been  set  the 
temporary  wood  treads  and  platforms  are  to  be  replaced,  to- 
protect  the  marble  and  slate-work,  and  must  be  kept  in  repair 
until  the  completion  of  the  building. 

Ladders  made  of  wrought-iron,  strings  3  in.  X  i  in.  with 
double  rungs  of  f-in.' round  iron,  are  to  be  provided  and  put  up 
as  follows : 

In  each  of  the  six  elevator-machine  shafts  at  the  second 
and  fourth  stories,  in  the  deck-house  to  the  tank-house  floor, 
and  one  to  the  grating  over  the  service  elevator. 

All  the  above  ladders  are  to  be  securely  fastened,  and  are 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  14* 

to  be  put  up  complete  with  necessary  i-in.  diameter  hand- 
rails, as  may  be  directed. 

Railings. — -All  railings  are  to  be  made  of  wrought-iron,  to* 
be  securely  fastened  and  braced.  The  ornamental  scroll-work 
is  to  be  well  made  and  firmly  riveted. 

On  the  streets  railings  are  to  be  provided  for  the  store 
entrance  steps,  as  shown  and  as  may  be  directed.  The  railings 
on  the  main  cornice  (i2th  story),  and  the  railings  on  the  roof 
between  the  parapet  posts  on  the  three  street  fronts,  are  to  be 
made  as  shown  and  directed  ;  all  to  be  made  of  large-sized  bar 
and  strap-iron,  properly  fastened  and  braced.  The  railings  on 
the  main  cornice  are  to  have  proper  foot-blocks,  extending 
back  under  the  gutter  lining  to  the  masonry,  to  which  the  posts 
are  to  be  bolted. 

On  the  coping  of  the  vault  wall  in  rear  court,  opposite  pier 
F3,  provide  and  put  up  a  railing  about  9  ft.  long,  8  ft.  high, 
made  of  i-in.  diameter  round  bars  6  in.  between  centres  and  4- 

o 

in.  diameter  intermediate  bars,  with  4  J-in.  X  2  J-in.  cross-bars, 
put  together  in  the  very  best  manner  and  securely  fastened. 

All  the  windows  on  second  story  on  all  the  street  fronts 
are  to  have  on  the  inside,  properly  screwed  to  the  wood-work, 
2-in.  diameter  pipe  guard-rails  with  ornamental  cast-iron  sock- 
ets. The  surface  of  the  rails  and  sockets  must  be  finished 
smooth,  and  galvanoplated  with  copper  or  bronze. 

On  all  the  stories  pipe  rails  with  sockets  are  to  be  provided 
and  put  up  where  directed,  in  the  two  shafts  between  F2  and! 
G2,  H2  and  12  ;  in  the  tank-house  pipe  rails  with  proper  stand- 
ards and  braces  and  two  rails  are  to  be  put  up  at  the  edge  of 
the  floor. 

Gates. — Each  of  the  three  entrances  on  Cortlandt,  Church, 
and  Dey  streets  are  to  be  provided  with  ornamental  gates  of 
wrought-iron,  as  shown. 

Each  set  of  gates  is  to  be  made  in  four  folds,  and  is  to  have 
all  necessary  hinges,  bolts,  cross-bars,  fastenings,  and  locks  put 
up  complete  in  every  respect.  The  frames  are  to  be  made  of 


142  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

heavy  bar-iron,  and  the  ornamental  strap-work  is  to  be  extra 
heavy. 

Guards. — Each  of  the  transom  sashes  over  the  main  en- 
trance doors  on  Cortlandt,  Church,  and  Dey  streets  are  to  have 
ornamental  guards  made  of  wrought-iron,  as  shown. 

The  frames  are  to  be  made  of  heavy  bar-iron,  and  the  orna. 
mental  strap-work  is  to  be  extra  heavy;  to  be  properly  fas 
tened. 

All  the  windows  in  the  partitions  west  of  the  main  staircase 
on  the  first  story,  and  all  stories  above,  are  to  have  guards 
made  of  wrought-iron,  frames  to  be  of  f-in.  X  f-in.  iron  filled 
with  twisted  lattice-work  of  ^-in.  X  i-in.  strap-iron,  placed  2 
in.  between  centres,  riveted  at  each  intersection  and  to  the 
frames. 

These  guards  are  to  be  hung  on  butts  and  are  to  have 
approved  fastenings. 

Grille-work. — The  grille-work  for  the  elevator  fronts  is  to 
to  be  provided  as  hereinafter  specified. 

Gratings. — On  the  top  of  all  elevator  shafts  and  the  eleva- 
tor-machine shafts,  gratings  with  trap  doors  are  to  be  provided  ; 
to  be  made  of  f-in.  X  i^-in.  bars  placed  ij  in.  between  centres, 
with  rods  and  thimbles,  set  in  frames  of  f-in.  X  if-in.  iron,  prop- 
erly leaded  to  the  stone  copings  and  fastened  to  the  iron  beams 
and  provided  with  necessary  supports.  To  be  properly  framed 
for  the  elevator  ropes  and  put  up  complete  in  every  respect. 

Gratings  made  in  the  same  manner  are  to  be  put  down  on 
the  level  with  the  floor  on  all  stories  in  the  shafts  between  F2 
and  G2,  H2  and  12,  as  shown. 

Gratings  are  to  be  provided  in  the  elevator-machine  shafts 
at  the  cylinder  heads. 

Partitions,  Enclosures,  Floors,  Etc.,  made  of  TVin-  plate- 
iron,  properly  fitted  and  fastened,  with  all  the  corners  riveted  to- 
gether by  means  of  2j  X  2|-in.  angle-irons,  and  provided  with 
necessary  tee  and  angle  irons  for  stiffening  bars,  securely  fast- 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  145 

ened  and  bolted  to  the  iron-work  and  masonry,  are  to  be 
provided  and  set  as  follows : 

At  pier  A3  the  enclosure  of  the  sidewalk  elevator  built  on 
an  incline  is  to  extend  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  low  level 
basement  floor ;  fastened  to  the  iron  floor  of  the  coal  vault, 
between  A  and  Ai,  A2  and  A3,  the  enclosures  under  the 
patent  lights  are  to  be  placed  on  an  incline,  extending  from 
the  sidewalk  to  the  basement  floor  beams. 

Between  piers  B  and  C  the  enclosure  for  the  sidewalk  ele- 
vator is  to  extend  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  cellar  floor ;  at 
piers  F  and  G  the  partitions  from  the  piers  to  the  area  walls 
are  to  extend  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  patent  lights  at  base- 
ment floor  level. 

Between  piers  N2  and  N3  the  enclosures  under  the  patent 
lights  placed  on  an  incline  is  to  extend  from  the  sidewalk  to 
four  feet  above  the  basement  floor  at  the  inside  face  of  the  wall.. 

The  floor  of  the  coal  vault  on  the  low  level  basement  floor 
is  to  be  covered  with  ^-in.  thick  plate-iron,  with  butt  joints, 
screwed  to  cover  plates  placed  under  the  same  and  to  the 
flanges  of  the  beams. 

The  coal  chute  in  the  bottom  of  this  floor  is  to  be  funnel- 
shaped,  made  of  £-in.  thick  plate-iron  with  slide  cover  of  ap- 
proved make,  worked  by  a  lever  in  the  cellar. 

A  chute  20  in.  diameter,  made  of  J-in.  thick  plate-iron,  with 
the  ends  cut  to  fit  the  batter  of  the  foundation-walls,  is  to  be 
placed  in  the  cellar  between  piers  A3  and  A4,  as  directed. 

The  floors  of  the  area  at  basement  floor  level  between  the 
partitions  at  piers  F  and  G  is  to  be  covered  with  J-in.  thick 
plate-iron  extending  to  the  inner  face  of  the  piers,  to  have 
necessary  blocking  pieces  on  top  of  the  beams,  and  tee-iron 
cross-bars  between  the  beams  for  supports,  to  which  the  plate- 
iron  is  to  be  screwed  with  butt  joints ;  at  pier  F  a  pocket  is  to 
be  constructed  for  the  sidewalk  elevator  of  the  same  kind  of 
iron,  to  allow  the  platforms  to  land  flush  with  the  floor ;  the 
basement  floor  at  the  sidewalk  elevator  between  B  and  C  is  to- 


144  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

be  covered  with  |--in.  thick  plate-iron,  three  feet  wide  by  full 
width  of  opening,  properly  supported  and  fastened,  and  a  fascia 
•extending  to  the  bottom  of  the  beam  under  the  same,  made  of 
the  same  kind  of  iron,  is  to  be  provided. 

The  basement  floor  at  the  entrance  to  the  service  elevator 
at  F2  is  to  be  covered  with  a  J-in.  thick  plate-iron  3  ft.  6  in. 
wide,  forming  door-sill,  properly  fastened  to  blocking  pieces 
secured  to  the  floor  beams. 

The  bottom  of  each  of  the  six  passenger-elevator  shafts  is 
to  have  a  floor  made  of  -J-in.  thick  plate-iron  placed  2  ft.  6  in. 
below  the  floor  of  the  ground  floor,  to  have  necessary  5-in- 
beams  and  tee-irons  for  supports,  to  which  the  plates  are  to  be 
screwed  ;  necessary  holes  are  to  be  drilled  for  the  ropes  of  the 
elevator  machinery. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  service  elevator,  2  ft.  6  in.  below  the 
basement  floor,  a  floor  is  to  be  constructed  in  the  same  manner 
with  the  four  sides  2  ft.  6  in.  high,  properly  fastened  and  sup- 
iported  ;  the  bottoms  of  the  five  elevator-machine  shafts  are  to 
have  wrought-iron  pans  the  full  size  of  the  shaft,  made  of  £-in. 
plate-iron  writh  sides  turned  up  6  in.  all  around,  made  perfectly 
water-tight  and  provided  with  a  flanged  outlet  for  a  i-J-in.  pipe. 

Two  additional  pans  made  in  the  same  manner,  of  sizes  as 
directed,  are  to  be  provided  and  set. 

A  fascia  of  J-in.  thick  plate-iron  is  to  be  provided  and  set 
for  the  outside  edge  of  the  tank-house  floor,  extending  from 
the  bottom  of  the  beams  to  4  in.  above  the  floor. 

Iron  Shutters  are  to  be  provided  for  all  the  windows  in 
the  rear  walls  on  all  the  stories. 

All  shutters  are  to  have  frames  made  of  f  X  ii  in.  iron 
covered  with  No.  16  crimped  iron,  properly  riveted  ;  to  be 
hung  on  heavy  wrought-iron  pin  hinges  and  cast-iron  eyes 
built  in.  To  be  fastened  with  Cornell's  patent  extension  cross- 
bar or  other  equally  good  .fixtures,  complete  in  every  respect, 
for  securely  fastening  the  shutters  when  closed  and  when  open. 

The  shutters  of  the  large  windows  are  to  be  made  in  four 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  14$ 

folds,  and  all  shutters  must  fold  back  when  open,  close  to  the 
walls.  In  special  cases  the  shutters  are  to  be  made  as  directed. 

Iron  Doors. — Iron  doors  are  to  be  made  of  f  X  i£  in.  iron 
frames,  covered  with  No.  12  crimped  iron,  properly  riveted. 
All  doors  are  to  be  hung  on  heavy  wrought4ron  hinges,  and 
are  to  have  latch  fastenings,  except  otherwise  directed.  All 
doors,  except  otherwise  directed,  are  to  have  3  X  3  in.  angle 
iron  frames  for  the  openings,  to  be  securely  fastened. 

Iron  doors  are  to  be  provided  in  the  cellar  for  openings  to 
the  boiler  flue  stack,  to  the  coal  vault  and  shafts,  where  shown, 
to  the  elevator'  enclosure  between  piers  B  and  C,  and  in  the 
basement  to  the  same  elevator  enclosure. 

The  door  to  the  coal  vault  is  to  be  made  in  two  sections; 
the  lower  section  to  be  hinged  to  the  upper,  and  provided  with 
proper  fastenings. 

Posts  for  Doors. — All  doors  in  fire-proof  partitions  and 
sash  partitions  throughout  the  building  are  to  have  two  posts 
of  4-in.  channel-bars,  weighing  each  8J-  Ibs.  per  foot,  extending 
from  the  top  of  the  floor  beams  or  top  of  concrete  to  the 
bottom  of  the  beams  of  the  floor  above. 

The  tops  and  bottom  are  to  be  connected  together  by 
means  of  f  X  3  in.  bar  iron,  riveted  to  the  posts,  and  the 
upper  part  of  each  frame  is  to  be  secured  to  the  nearest  beam 
by  means  of  two  £  X  -J  in.  straps,  which  must  not  project  below 
the  bottom  of  the  beams.  All  channels  used  for  posts  are  to 
be  perfectly  true  and  straight,  out  of  wind,  set  perfectly  plumb, 
and  to  a  line. 

Each  channel-bar  is  to  have  holes  drilled  for  fastening  the 
wood-work. 

Light  Cast-iron  Work  is  to  be  particularly  well  made 
and  finished. 

All  the  bases  of  the  show  windows  on  the  three  streets, 
comprising  the  lower  portions  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  lower 
glass-line  are  to  be  made  of  cast-iron,  with  proper  supports. 
These  bases  are  to  have  moulded  brackets,  panels,  and  cap 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

mouldings,  returns  at  end  and  returns  extending  to  the  door 
jambs,  all  to  be  properly  fitted  and  fastened  to  the  masonry, 
the  patent  lights,  steps,  and  platforms,  and  must  be  accurately 
set  to  fit  the  work  over  the  same,  which  will  be  furnished 
under  another  contract. 

All  to  be  made  perfectly  water-tight.  The  capping  is  to 
be  drilled  and  tapped  as  directed. 

All  the  store-entrance  doors,  the  outside  doors  in  the  base- 
ment, and  the  exterior  doors  of  the  roof-house  are  to  have 
moulded  cast-iron  saddles. 

Deck  and  Tank  House  is  to  be  built  as  shown.  The 
frame  is  to  be  made  of  3i  X  3i  X  i  in.  angle-iron  placed 
about  three  feet  apart,  with  sills  and  4  X  4  X  i  m«  angle  plates, 
on  which  the  roof  beams  rest,  all  to  be  well  riveted.  The 
exterior  of  this  frame- work  is  to  be  covered  with  No.  12  plate- 
iron,  closely  riveted  and  made  perfectly  water-tight.  On  the 
rear  walls  the  plate-iron  is  to  cover  the  upper  part  of  the  face 
of  the  brick  wall  as  shown.  The  upper  part  of  the  plate-iron 
is  to  extend  in  all  cases  to  the  top  of  the  angle-iron  purlins  of 
the  roof.  At  the  door  and  window  frames  the  plate-iron  is  to 
project  and  is  to  be  screwed  to  the  wood  frames. 

The  cornices  and  trimmings  will  be  placed  on  the  plate-iron 
covering  under  another  contract,  but  the  contractor  is  to  do  all 
necessary  drilling  that  may  be  required  for  bolt  holes. 

Patent  Lights  are  to  be  made  of  extra  heavy  frames  of 
cast-iron,  rebated  and  provided  with  all  necessary  supports. 
To  be  properly  fastened  and  made  perfectly  water-tight. 

The  patent  lights  at  the  basement  floor  are  to  be  placed 
about  3  inches  below  the  floor-line,  comprising  the  bottoms  of 
the  area  piers  €3  and  €4,  at  piers  A  to  B,  at  piers  C  to  F,  at 
piers  G  to  N,  and  the  roof  of  the  rear  vault  in  court ;  these 
lights  and  the  lights  over  the  boiler  vault  are  to  be  glazed 
with  3-in.  first-quality  hexagonal  glass,  and  all  the  other  patent 
lights  flush  with  the  sidewalks  are  to  be  made  of  2-in.  diame- 
ter first-quality  glass-  bull's-eyes ;  the  patent  lights  on  Dey 


THE  HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  H7 

Street,  and  the  parts  from  piers  F  to  G  on  Church  Street,  are 
to  be  glazed  ;  all  others  are  not  to  be  glazed,  but  left  open. 

All  the  patent  lights  are  to  be  set  with  a  proper  descent, 
and  those  in  areas  and  over  the  vaults  are  to  be  provided  with 
6-inch  long  sprouts  for  3-inch  pipe  connections  and  large  heavy 
4-in.  diameter  convex  brass  stainers,  screwed  on. 

The  risers  under  the  show-windows  between  piers  N2  and 
N3  are  to  be  made  of  patent  lights,  glazed  with  first-quality 
glass  4  inches  square. 

The  steps,  platforms,  risers,  and  cheeks  at  the  entrances  to 
the  stores  between  piers  A  and  Ai,  F  and  G,  N2  and  N3,  are 
to  be  made  with  bull's-eye  patent  lights,  glazed  as  before  speci- 
fied. All  other  steps  and  platforms  of  the  other  store  entrances 
are  to  be  made  of  cast-iron,  with  diamond-pattern  tops  and  nos- 
ings, and  the  risers  and  cheeks  are  to  be  solid  with  plain  panels. 

All  steps,  platforms,  and  risers  are  to  have  all  necessary 
supports,  and  are  to  be  properly  fastened. 

All  frames  of  the  patent  lights  are  to  be  made  with  proper 
lugs  and  lips  for  receiving  the  work  on  top  of  the  same. 

All  the  patent  lights  in  the  areas  and  courts  are  to  have  an 
angle-iron  flashing,  not  less  than  3  in.  high,  properly  set  into  the 
brick-work,  forming  a  water-table  made  perfectly  water-tight. 

All  the  steps  to  the  outside  basement  doors  are  to  be  made 
of  cast-iron,  with  nosings  and  risers. 

The  copings  of  all  the  walls  in  the  courts  are  to  be  of  cast- 
iron,  properly  connected  with  the  patent-light  flashings  and 
with  the  walls,  made  perfectly  tight ;  the  shapes  of  the  copings 
are  to  be  made  as  directed. 

All  trap-doors  are  to  be  made  with  heavy  bar-iron  frames 
covered  with  No.  10  plate-iron,  properly  hung  on  heavy  cast 
bronze  butts  and  fastened  with  hasp,  staple,  and  padlock.  All 
are  to  be  provided  with  proper  stays  and  guard-bars. 

The  two  ventilators  over  boiler  vault  and  the  three  ventila- 
tors over  the  vault  in  the  rear  court  and  one  ventilator  in  side- 
walk, patent  light  between  piers  A2  and  A3  (not  shown),  are  to 


148 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


be  made,  as  directed,  of  angle-iron  frames,  covered  with  No.  10 
iron  ;  the  tops  are  to  be  made  same  as  trap  doors,  operated  by 
chains  from  below. 

Provide  and  set  where  shown  on  ground-floor  plan  24-in. 
diameter  vault  covers  with  cast-iron  frames  and  flanges  made 
of  No.  10  wrought-iron  extending  through  the  arches.  The 
frames  are  to  be  set  flush  with  the  flagging,  and  the  covers  are 
to  have  glass  bull's-eyes. 

All  are  to  have  proper  chain  fastenings. 
Boiler  Flue  is  to  be  made  as  shown,  and  is  to  be  put  up 
in  sections  as  the  mason-work  is  being  erected.  The  boiler 
flue  is  to  be  made  with  a  square  box  at  the 
bottom,  and  is  to  be  provided  at  the  bottom 
with  a  funnel  and  i8-in.  diameter-  tube  with 
a  trap  door.  It  is  to  be  made  three  feet  four 
inches  in  diameter  of  J-in.  plate  iron,  riveted 
together  with  |~in.  rivets,  with  a  four-inch 
pitch,  made  in  sections  about  20  feet  long, 
and  the  ends  of  each  section  are  to  have  a  4- 
in.  X  4  in.  bent  angle-irons  riveted  to  the 
same  ;  the  sections  are  to  be  bolted  together 
with  f-in.  bolts,  6-in.  between  centres, 
through  the  angle-irons. 

Eeach  section  is  to  be  supported  on  two 
6-in.  beams  resting  on  the  walls. 

All  necessary  beams  are  to  be  provided 
at  the  foot  for  a  proper  support. 

The  horizontal  portion  is  to  be  made  of 
the  same  kind  of  plate-iron,  riveted  together 
and  to  have  an  angle-iron  flanged  outlet  in 
the  boiler  vault.     The  horizontal  section  is  to 
extend  into  the  boiler  vault  as  shown,  and  all 
/          necessary  supports  are  to  be  provided.     The 
FIG.  61.— WROUGHT-  top  *s  to  have  a  flange  as  shown,  made  of  £-in. 
IRON  BOILER  FLUE,    thick  iron,  properly  fastened  and  braced. 


T 


\ 


(-16-1 


THE   HAVEMEYER  BUILDING.  149 

Elevator  Fronts  are  to  be  built  as  shown  on  the  detail 
drawings,  the  pilasters  with  ornamental  fronts  and  caps  and 
the  jambs  ;  the  transoms  and  cornices  are  to  be  made  of  cast- 
iron.  On  the  ground  floor,  1st  and  nth  stories,  the  portions 
above  the  pilasters  are  to  be  panelled  and  ornamented,  and 
corresponding  panels  are  to  be  carried  across  the  openings. 

The  jambs  are  to  be  closely  fitted  to  the  brick-work. 

All  the  cornices  are  to  have  one  member  ornamented  ;  the 
various  sections  are  to  be  made  to  accurate  curves,  and  the 
joints  must  be  well  fitted. 

The  soffits  are  to  be  carried  back  the  full  depth. 

Heavy  cast-iron  ribbed  sills  extending  from  jamb  to  jamb 
are  to  be  provided  for  all  openings,  set  flush  with  the  floor.  In 
the  shafts  the  spaces  between  the  soffits  and  the  sills  are  to  be 
filled  with  No.  12  crimped  iron,  accurately  fitted  ;  in  the  ground 
floor  this  covering  plate  is  to  extend  to  the  iron  floor. 

All  the  above  work  must  be  securely  fastened. 

The  panels  above  the  transoms  are  to  have  panels  of 
wrought-iron  grille-work,  made  of  wrought-iron  frames  to  be  of 
J  in.X  i  in.,  and  the  lattice  is  to  be  of  \  in.Xf  in.  bars  twisted, 
riveted  at  each  intersection  with  strap-work,  as  shown. 

The  doors  are  to  be  made,  as  shown,  of  heavy  wrought-iron 
bars  and  ornamental  strap-work,  all  properly  fastened  and 
riveted.  The  strap-work  of  the  upper  panels  is  to  be  twisted, 
riveted  at  each  intersection. 

One  of  each  set  of  doors  is  to  be  stationary  and  the  other 
door  is  to  be  hung  on  overhead  bronze  anti-friction  sheaves  on 
steel  ways,  provided  with  guard-rails,  and  the  lower  part  is  to 
have  proper  guides  ;  the  doors  are  to  be  fastened  with  extra 
heavy  polished  bronze  latches  of  special  make  and  extra  strong, 
striking  plates  and  buffers  with  rubber  heads ;  all  to  be  put  up 
complete  in  every  respect. 

All  the  grille-work  and  the  doors  are  to  be  carefully  fin- 
ished, and  are  to  be  Bower- Barffed. 

The  service  elevator  located  near  F2  is  to  have  on  all  sto- 


150  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

ries  cast-iron  sills  and  cover  plates  in  the  shafts  from  the  door- 
head  to  the  sills,  as  above  specified — all  to  be  properly  fastened. 

Sidewalk  Elevators. — Provide  and  put  up  complete  in 
every  respect  3  sidewalk  elevators — one  at  A4,  one  at  B,  and 
one  at  F ;  the  two  former  are  to  run  from  the  cellar  to  the 
sidewalk,  and  the  latter  from  the  basement  floor  to  the  side- 
walk. 

The  elevator  at  A4  is  to  run  on  an  incline. 

All  necessary  frame-work,  guides,  gearing,  chains,  platforms, 
etc.,  etc.,  are  to  be  provided.  The  winches  are  to  be  located 
where  directed.  All  wood-work  is  to  be  of  well-seasoned  oak. 
The  platforms  are  to  be  covered  with  3^-1  n.  thick  plate-iron, 
properly  screwed  down.  All  the  elevators  are  to  be  delivered 
in  perfect  and  complete  working  order. 

Miscellaneous. — In  all  cases  where  flashings  and  gutter- 
linings  are  to  be  connected  with  iron-work,  a  f  X  ij"  bar  is  to 
be  screwed  or  bolted  on  every  12  inches  to  the  iron-work, 
clamping  the  flashings. 

Each  of  the  parapet  posts  on  the*  three  fronts  is  to  be  pro- 
vided with  i^-in.  thick  galvanized  cast-iron  plate,  20  X  20"  ; 
each  plate  is  to  be  bolted  down  with  two  i-in.  diam.  galvanized 
iron  bolts  6  ft.  long,  with  necessary  plates. 

The  contractor  is  to  remove  all  refuse  materials  promptly, 
and  is  to  do  all  necessary  drilling  and  cutting  of  iron-work  that 
may  be  required,  and  finish  up  after  them. 


L 


FIG.  62. — FRONT  ELE- 
VATION. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  JACKSON  BUILDING. 

THE  Jackson  Building,  situated  on  the 
north  side  of  Union  Square,  New  York, 
on  a  plot  28.6  X  200  ft,  is  one  of  the  ear- 
liest specimens  of  the  skeleton  construc- 
tion, and  embodies  all  of  those  features 
that  distinctly  pertain  to  its  class.  Its 
foundations  are  on  solid  rock,  some  of  the 
piers  supporting  the  wall  columns  being  as 
much  as  thirty  feet  below  the  sidewalk. 

Its  situation  on  the  north  side  of 
Union  Square,  with  the  Century  Building 
on  the  east,  and  the  Parrish  Building  en- 
closing it  on  the  west,  and  having  an  ex- 
tension through  to  Eighteenth  Street, 
gives  it  a  commanding  character  in  spite 
of  its  narrowness. 

It  is  eleven  stories  in  height,  is  entirely 
fireproof,  and  was  finished  the  first  of 
June,  1892.  Both  the  Union  Square  and 
Eighteenth  Street  fronts  are  of  pink 
granite  from  the  New  England  Granite 
Works,  and  of  buff  brick  i^  inches  thick. 
The  building  extends  five  stories  above 
the  adjoining  buildings,  the  height  from 
the  curb  level  to  the  top  tier  of  beams  be- 
ing 155  ft.  6  inches. 

Iron  bases  were  set  November  5, 
1891.  In  one  month  six  stories  were 
erected.  All  the  iron  construction  to  the 


152 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


seventh  story  was  in  place  by  December  I2th.  Then  the 
brickwork  began  to  rise  rapidly,  and  on  February  12,  1892, 
the  roof  tier  of  beams  was  set. 

The  1st,  2d,  and  3d  stories  of  each  front 
are  finished  in  cast-iron,  with  neatly  moulded 
cornices  and  mullions.  The  4th,  5th,  and 
6th  stories  of  the  Union  Square  front  have 
projecting  angular  copper  bay  windows;  the 
same  stones  on  Eighteenth  Street  are  fin- 
ished with  a  cast-iron  bay  window,  covering 
the  entire  front  except  the  side  piers. 

The  stairs  are  finished  with  cast-iron 
ornamental  strings  and  wrought-iron  railings 
with  marble  treads,  the  passenger  elevators 
with  wrought-iron  scroll  grilles  and  cast-iron 
transoms. 

Floor-beam  Spacing-  in  the  Jackson 
Building. — In  spacing  the  floor  beams  and 
girders  in  the  floor  of  this  building  economy 
of  material  and  simplicity  of  connection  is 
observed.  The  cast-iron  columns,  of  which 
there  are  twenty-six,  are  all  12  inches  by 
16  inches,  and  set  upon  cast-iron  base-blocks 
33"  X  36"  X  1 4"  thick  by  23  in.  in  height, 
arranged  in  the  side-walls  as  shown  on  the 
plan,  Fig.  63,  placed  about  15  ft.  apart, 
standing  four  inches  away  from  the  party 
lines. 

The  cross-girders  are  all  20  inches  by  64 
pounds  per  foot  I-beams,  while  at  right 
angle?  to  the  same  are  placed  the.Q^X  21 
Ibs.  per  foot  floor  beams  secured  to  the 

FIG  63. — TYPICAL     mrclers  bv  wrouefht-iron  knees   and  bolts,  as 

FLOOR  PLAN, 
JACKSON  BUILDING,  shown  at  Fig.  64,  and  spaced  about  5  ft.  3 

inches  apart. 


a  — 

f~~\ 

!' 

1' 

X 

STAIRS 

g 

L.KIHT  COURT 

i 

d 

ifi 

c 

£ 

1 

THE  JACKSON  BUILDING. 


153 


A  twelve-inch  curtain  wall  extends  between  the  columns 
from  the  bottom  of  basement  to  the  top  of  sixth  story,  sup- 
ported at  each  tier  of  beams  by  two  I-beams  sufficient  in 
strength  to  carry  this  wall.  At  the  top  of  sixth  story  the  col- 
umns cease  and  a  2O-in.  brick  wall  begins,  built  upon  .beam 
girders  encircling  the  entire  building,  resting  upon  the.  top  of 
columns  and  thoroughly  anchored  to  the  7th-story  floor  girders. 
The  2O-inch  wall  extends  through  three  stories, — that  is,  the 


FIG.  64 

seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth, — and  then  a  i6-inch  wall  extending 
through  the  tenth  and  eleventh  stones  completes  the  building. 
The  floor  beams  of  the  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  sto- 
ries are  15  inch  by  41  pounds  per  foot,  spaced  about  5  feet  from 
centre  to  centre,  and  thoroughly  anchored  to  the  brick  walls. 


154  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Calculation  of  Floor  Weights. — The  different  materials 
calculated  as  dead  load  were :  Fireproof  floor  arches,  beams, 
wooden  flooring,  filling  above  arches,  fireproof  partitions 
plastering  upon  ceiling,  and  plastering  upon  partitions,  when 
added  together  was  found  to  be  103  pounds  per  square  foot. 

The  live  load  assumed  was  50  pounds  per  square  foot,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  153  pounds. 

The  wall  weights  were  153  pounds  for  the  i6-inch  wall, 
and  192  pounds  for  the  2O-inch  wall.  The  weight  of  columns 
was  also  added  to  the  total  weight.  The  following  table  gives 
the  total  loads  on  the  columns  of  each  story : 

Length.  Size.  Load. 

6th-story  columns 12  ft.    6  in.          12"  X  16"  X  i"  177  tons 

5th      "            "       12  ft.    6  in.  195      " 

4th      "            "       I3ft.    gin.  "  X  ii  213      " 

3d        "            "       15  ft.    7^  in.  "  X  ii  231      « 

2d       "            "       16  ft.  ioi  in.  "  X  ii  250      " 

ist      "            "       17  ft.    6  in.  "  X  i£  270      " 

Basement       "       12  ft.    6  in.  "  X  i£  290      '•' 

Column  Connection. — In  joining  the  columns  with  each 
other,  with  the  floor  girders  and  the  curtain-wall  girders,  sim- 
plicity of  design  was  again  considered  ;  also  a  rigid  connection. 
By  referring  to  the  detail,  Fig.  64,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
2O-inch  floor  girder  rests  upon  a  heavy  bracket  about  2  inches 
thick,  projecting  6  inches,  and  that  lugs  are  entirely  dispensed 
with.  The  girders  were  all  made  of  one  length,  with  only  j-  of 
an  inch  clearance  ;  6"  X  4"  X  i"  angle-knees  were  riveted  to 
each  side,  projecting  slightly  beyond  the  end,  so  that  the  col- 
umns and  girders  were  drawn  perfectly  tight. 

The  girders  supporting  the  curtain  wall  are  also  shown  in 
this  figure,  the  same  principle  being  carried  out  as  for  the  floor 
girders.  In  addition,  a  6"  X  f"  wrought-iron  strap  is  bolted 
to  the  column,  and  helps  tie  these  girders  to  each  other  and  to 
the  column. 

By  referring  to  Fig.  65,  another  method  of  securing  a  rigid 
connection  with  the  floor  girders  of  a  building  seems  practi- 


THE  JACKSON  BUILDING. 


155 


cable — two  I-beams  being  used  in  the  place  of  a  deeper  one. 
Where  one  beam  is  used  considerable  furring  is  required,  but 
in  a  two-beam  girder  the  ceiling  can  be  made  perfectly  level. 
The  curtain-wall  girders  can  be  accommodated  in  the  same 


FIG.  65. — DOUBLE-BEAM  GIRDER  CON- 
NECTION WITH  CAST  COLUMNS. 


FIG.  66. — DETAIL  OF  TOP  OF  COLUMN, 
SHOWING  GIRDERS  SUPPORTING  UP- 
PER WALLS. 


manner  as  shown  in  Fig.  64,  but  larger  knees  and  more  bolts 
will  be  required. 

In  resting  one  column  upon  another,  eight  bolts  J  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  are  used,  and  the  flanges  are  stiffened  by  small 
brackets  cast  with  the  column,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

The  beam  girder,  as  previously  mentioned  for  the  support 
of  the  walls  enclosing  the  upper  stories,  is  shown  in  detail, 
Fig.  66.  Three  20  I-beams  were  used,  cased  upon  the  outside 
by  a  J-'in.  thick  cast-iron  plate ;  the  girder  being  secured  by 
bolts  to  the  top  of  columns,  and  further  secured  by  a  6"  xi" 
strap  to  each  floor  girder.  The  curtain  wall  is  carried  up 
to  the  bottom  of  the  three-beam  girder,  while  the  floor  arch  is 
supported  by  a  channel  on  the  same  level  as  the  floor  beam. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

U.ofC. 
ASSOCIATION  LIBRARY 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
THE   NEW   NETHERLAND,   NEW   YORK. 

THE  plans  as  prepared  and  carried  out  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Wm.  H.  Hume,  architect,  complete  a  building  which 
in  some  respects  is  interesting  and  imposing.  No  finer  site 
could  have  been  chosen  for  such  a  structure,  standing  as  it 
does  at  the  portal  of  New  York's  great  Park,  and  towering 
far  above  any  of  the  tall  buildings  for  which  this  locality  is 
noted. 

The  building  covers  four  city  lots,  with  a  frontage  on  Fifth 
Avenue  of  100  feet,  and  a  depth  on  Fifty-ninth  Street  of  125 
feet,  with  a  cellar  and  basement  below  the  sidewalk,  and  seven- 
teen stories  above  ;  the  four  upper  stories  of  which  are  in  the 
angle  or  slope  of  the  roof,  thus  somewhat  reducing  the  height 
of  the  structure. 

To  complete  the  building  it  required  nineteen  tiers  of 
steel  beams  and  girders.  The  height  from  sidewalk  to  top 
tier  of  beams  is  216  feet,  with  an  additional  1 8  feet  to  top 
of  roof  houses,  making  the  total  height  234  feet,  and  as  previ- 
ously mentioned,  nine  hundred  steel  columns  and  about  forty- 
five  hundred  steel  beams  were  used  in  the  construction. 

The  style  of  the  building  is  of  Modern  Romanesque  design. 
The  first  four  stories  are  built  of  heavy  rock-faced  Belleville 
brown  stone,  thus  affording  a  strong  and  massive  base  ;  the 
superstructure  is  of  buff  brick,  relieved  with  stone  and  terra- 
cotta trimmings.  The  twelfth  story  is  faced  entirely  with  a 
heavy  cornice  finished  by  a  balcony  and  stone  balustrade,  the 
whole  story  forming  the  main  cornice  of  the  building,  and  so 

156 


THE  NEW  NETHERLAND,    NEW    YORK. 


157 


arranged  as  to  break  in  the  most  pleasing  manner  the  towering 
appearance  of  the  building.  In  construction,  it  is  as  thorough- 
ly fireproof  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it,  while  in  strength  it  is 
only  necessary  to  state  that  the  brick  walls  are  relieved  of  the 


FIG.   67. — THE  NEW   NETHERLAND,    FIFTH    AVENUE,    CENTRAL    PARK    AND 
FIFTY-NINTH  STREET. 

strain   and   weight   imposed    by  the   use  of  heavy  steel    box 
columns,  made  of  plates  and  angles. 

The  main  office,  covered  by  a  dome  of  iron  and  glass,  and 
finished  with  bronze,  forms  a  notable  feature. 


158  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

The  grand  staircase  is  of  marble  and  bronze,  supported 
upon  heavy  steel  I-beam  strings. 

Marble  and  bronze  are  also  extensively  used  in  good  taste 
throughout  the  main  hall,  office,  and  various  other  rooms  on 
the  ground  floor. 

The  continuation  of  the  main  stairs  is  constructed  of  cast- 
iron  strings,  cast-iron  ornamental  risers  with  marble  treads  and 
guarded  by  ornamental  wrought-iron  railings.  The  several 
passenger-elevators  fronts  are  finished  and  constructed  with 
cast  and  wrought  iron.  The  main  passenger  elevators  on  the 
ground  floor  are  finished  in  bronze. 

The  roof  is  constructed  of  7-inch  steel-beam  rafters,  about 
4  feet  apart,  fitted  to  the  outside  floor  beams  of  the  different 
stories  in  the  inclined  portion,  supporting  3"  X  3"  X  \  T's  as 
purlins,  placed  horizontally  25  inches  apart.  The  dormers  are 
made  of  cast-iron,  to  which  are  secured  terra-cotta  blocks  and 
copper  flashings.  The  entire  pitched  roof  is  covered  with 
terra-cotta  blocks  and  tiles. 

Over  all  doors  and  window-openings  in  brick  walls  are 
placed  cast-iron  lintels,  with  one  or  more  webs  to  suit  the 
thickness  of  the  walls,  and  of  sufficient  thickness  of  metal  to 
carry  the  imposed  loads ;  in  all  the  openings  in  the  fireproof 
partitions  light  T's  were  used. 

The  ceilings  of  halls,  corridors,  bath  rooms  and  closets  were 
furred  down  with  light  T's  spaced  about  i6|-  inches  from  cen- 
tre to  centre,  to  carry  terra-cotta  blocks. 

The  space  between  these  hanging  ceilings  and  floors  is 
used  as  vent  flues,  to  carry  the  vitiated  air  from  closets,  etc., 
through  and  out  the  roof. 

Floor  Plan. — The  floor  plan,  Fig.  68,  shows  the  manner  of 
dividing  the  floor  area  into  rooms,  halls,  closets,  elevators, 
stairways,  etc.,  to  the  best  advantage.  Each  apartment  has 
its  parlor,  bed  room,  bath  room,  and  closets,  with  a  separate 
air-shaft  from  the  bath  room.  These  air-shafts  extend  to  the 
roof  and  topped  out  upon  the  roof  with  a  small  house  con- 


THE  NEW  NETHERLAND,   NEW    YORK.  159 

structed  of  T  and  angles,  covered  on  the  sides  with  iron,  and 
on  the  top  with  glass  and  iron.  In  the  sides  of  these  houses 
are  electric  motors  and  fans. 

The  various  rooms  throughout  the  building  are  all  light  ; 
those  on  the  two  fronts  face  Fifty-ninth  Street  and  Fifth 
Avenue,  those  on  the  inside  the  large  court  in  the  centre  of 
the  building.  At  the  bottom  of  this  centre  court  the  dome 
skylight  is  situated,  covering  the  entire  office  and  grand  stair- 
way. 

At  the  extremity  of  the  hall  to  the  left  is  the  ladies'  eleva- 


FIG.  68  — TYPICAL  FLOOR  PLAN. 

tor ;  at  the  extreme  right  is  the  main  elevators,  with  an  elec- 
tric elevator  for  freight,  etc.,  adjoining  the  main  elevators  and 
servants'  stairway.  The  servants'  stairway  throughout  the  en- 
tire height  of  building  is  constructed  of  cast-iron  strings  and 
risers  and  slate  treads. 

The  main  boiler  flue,  built  of  brick,  is  situated  at  the  north^ 


i6o 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


east  corner  immediately  adjoining  the  large  vent  shaft.  This 
flue  and  shaft  is  thoroughly  tied  to  the  building,  at  each  tier 
of  beams,  by  heavy  wrought  frames  and  anchors. 

Beam  Plan. — The  beams  and  girders  of  the  building  are 
arranged  in   a  systematic  and  economical   manner  upon   the 


FIG.  69. 

plan,  making  a  strong  and   rigid   structure  throughout.      By 
referring  to  the  plan,  Fig.  69,  the  girders  are  shown  extending 


THE   NEW  NETHERLAND,    NEW    YORK.  l6l 

in.  different  directions,  and  in  the  majority  of  the  spans  are 
composed  of  two  1 5-inch,  32  Ibs.  per  foot  channels  placed  with 
the  flanges  toward  each  other,  thus  reducing  to  a  considerable 
extent  the  cost  of  framing  of  the  beams. 

When  by  the  arrangement  of  the  floor  beams  a  floor  arch 
is  to  be  supported,  the  flange  of  the  channel  is  turned  toward 
the  arch — such,  for  instance,  as  that  shown  between  columns 
marked  27,  13,  14,  and  15.  When  two  channels  were  not  suffi- 
cient to  support  the  floor  weight,  two  1 5-inch  by  75  Ibs.  per 
foot  I-beams  were  used  (see  spans  between  columns  17  and  50, 
5  and  44). 

The  weight  calculated  upon  beams,  girders,  and  columns  is 
175  pounds  per  square  foot  of  surface,  which  includes  the 
total  dead  and  live  load. 

The  columns  are  spaced  from  15  to  17  feet  apart,  except 
the  distance  between  columns  17  and  50,  which  is  27  ft.  2  inches. 

The  openings  throughout  the  floors  for  stairs,  elevators, 
and  flues  are  framed  with  beams  and  channels,  as  shown  upon 
the  plan. 

Columns  49  and  38  are  placed  in  the  position  shown  to 
equalize  the  distance  between  37  and  50,  an  arrangement  which 
serves  to  brace  the  end  wall  by  placing  the  beam  girders 
between  the  columns  23,  49,  and  38  on  a  skew.  This  same 
principle  is  also  carried  out  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  build- 
ing between  columns  18,  28,  and  31. 

The  column  marked  51  at  end  of  light-court  adjoining  the 
stairs  is  supported  by  a  plate  girder,  which  in  turn  rests  upon 
brackets,  secured  to  columns  marked  11  and  12. 

The  floor  beams  throughout  the  building  are  1 2-inch  by  32 
Ibs.  per.  foot  (except  between  columns  17  and  50  where  they 
were  made  1 5-inch  by  41  Ibs.  per  foot),  and  stiffened  by  |-inch 
diameter  tie-rods  spaced  on  an  average  of  5  feet  centre. 

Columns. — The  details  of  the  columns  and  the  column  con- 
nections in  this  building  are,  without  exception,  the  best  that 
could  be  designed  for  such  a  structure. 


162 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


By  referring  to  the  detail  of  column,  Fig.  70,  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  girders  (of  two  15-in.  beams  in  this  case)  are 


1 


FIG.  70. — DETAIL  OF  CELLAR  COLUMN. 

secured  to  the  columns  by  twelve  rivets  through  angle-knees 
4  in.  X  4  in.  X  i  in.  thick. 

The  inside  knees  are  first  riveted  to  the  column  at  the  shop 


THE  NEW  NETHERLAND,   NEW    YORK.  163 

and  the  outside  knees  are  left  loose,  so  the  beams  can  be 
placed  in  position  ;  then  the  entire  work  is  riveted  together  by 
hot  rivets  at  the  building. 

The  same  connection  also  applies  to  the  floor  beams  and 
girders  joining  the  columns. 

Angle-knees  are  also  riveted  to  the  column  at  the  heel  of 
the  beams  and  girders,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In  securing  the 
columns  to  each  other  heavy  steel  planed  plates  were  placed 
between  at  about  the  floor  levels,  so  as  to  allow  a  proper  clear- 
ance for  the  girders ;  then  each  side  of  the  columns  were 
placed,  similar  plates  covering  the  joint,  and  extending  at 
least  two  feet  above  and  below  the  joint ;  and  when  the  im- 
mediate column  above  is  less  in  size  than  the  one  below 
filler  plates  are  used,  shown  by  the  heavy  black  line,  and 
riveted  through  by  the  same  sized  rivet  as  used  in  the  body  of 
the  columns. 

Rivets  of  i-in.,  f-in.,  and  f-in.  were  used  throughout  the 
building  ;  i-in.  in  the  heavier  and  f-in.  in  the  lighter  columns. 

The  above  detail  also  applies  to  the  Z-bar  column. 

Foundations  for  Columns. — To  prepare  the  foundation 
for  the  weight  to  be  supported  the  rock  was  cut  away  to  a 
depth  of  three  or  four  feet,  so  there  could  be  no  chance  of  any 
decayed  portion  remaining ;  then  several  blocks  of  hard  granite 
were  dressed  and  set  upon  each  other  at  about  an  angle  of  30 
degrees.  On  top  of  this  a  heavy  steel  plate  2  in.  thick  was 
bedded,  and  heavy  anchors  ij  in.  in  diameter  were  built  ex- 
tending down  through  the  granite,  passed  up  through  the 
2-in.  plate  and  foot  of  column,  and  held  securely  by  heavy 
nuts. 

For  crushing  strength  of  stone,  etc.,  see  chapter  on  Foun- 
dation. 

Where  buildings  of  this  weight  and  height  are  built  upon 
rock  very  much  expense  is  saved,  many  calculations  are  dis- 
pensed with,  and  the  danger  of  any  settlement  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 


164 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


STEEL   COLUMNS— NEW    NETHERLANDS. 
COLUMN  MARKED  No.  17. 


Length. 

Outside  Plates. 

Webs. 

Angles. 

Load, 
Tons. 

Ft. 

In. 

No. 

Size  in  In. 

No. 

Size  in  In.    No.         Size  in  In. 

Cellar  .... 

12 
12 
17 
13 
12 

9 
9 
6 

6 

4 

«5|5BM|50M|«0 

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855 
808 
763 
7I8 

673 
628 

583 
539 
494 
449 

404 

359 
3M 
270 
225 
190 

1.35 
90 

45 

Basement  
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2d  ' 

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4th  '  

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6th  '  

7th  '  
8th  '  

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COLUMNS  MARKED  25,  28,  31,  32,  33,  34.  35,  36,  38,  45,  46,  49,  50. 


Cellar       

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THE  NEW  NETHERLAND,    NEW    YORK. 


I65 


Wall  Thicknesses. — The  thickness  of  the  front  walls  fac- 
ing Fifth  Avenue  and  Fifty-ninth  Street  are,  for  the  cellar  3  ft. 
4  in. ;  basement,  3  ft. ;  first  story,  2  ft.  8  in. ;  second,  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  stories,  2  ft. ;  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth,  I  ft. 
8  in. ;  ninth  to  and  including  fourteenth  story,  I  ft.  6  in.  The 
fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  stories  are  in  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  roof. 

The  walls  of  the  light-court  are  all  twelve  inches  in  thick- 
ness and  supported  by  the  channel-girder  and  cast-iron  plate, 
as  shown  in  the  "plan  and  section  of  the  wall,  Fig.  71.  The 


FIG,  71. 


FIG.  72. 


FIG.  73. 


columns,  as  well  as  the  face  of  girders  in  this  light-court  wall, 
are  faced  with  4-in.  enamelled  brick. 

Over  the  head  of  each  window,  supporting  the  entire  thick- 
ness of  wall,  is  a  stone  and  cast-iron  lintel,  and  at  the  bottom 
of  windows  a  stone  sill  is  used.  The  columns  are  also  encased 
on  the  inside  by  a  4-in.  facing  of  terra-cotta  blocks.  This  entire 


1 66  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

construction  enclosing  the  court  starts  from  the  level  of  the 
second  story,  and  extends  to  the  roof  or  to  the  top  of  seven- 
teenth story  and  topped  out  by  a  blue-stone  coping. 

The  front  walls,  facing  on  Fifty-ninth  Street  and  Fifth  Ave- 
nue from  the  cellar  to  the  eighth  story,  are  shown  by  the  plan 
and  section  Fig.  73.  The  channel  extending  along  the  wall  is 
the  floor  channel,  which  receives  the  floor  arches.  Fig.  72 
represents  the  plan  and  section  of  walls  above  the  eighth  story; 
the  beams  and  outside  channel  support  the  wall,  while  the 
inside  channel  supports  the  floor  arches. 

HOTEL    WALDORF. 

The  Hotel  Waldorf,  which  Henry  J.  Hardenbergh,  archi- 
tect, has  planned  and  built  for  William  Waldorf  Astor,  situated 
at  the  corner  of  Thirty-third  Street  and  Fifth  Avenue,  New 
York,  covers  a  plot  of  ground  two  hundred  and  forty-nine  feet 
six  inches  (249  ft.  6  in.)  on  Thirty-third  Street,  and  ninety-eight 
feet  nine  inches  (98  ft.  9  in.)  on  Fifth  Avenue.  The  construc- 
tion is  entirely  fireproof,  and  a  variation  of  the  skeleton  con- 
struction as  heretofore  described.  The  walls  simply  carry  their 
own  weight,  while  the  floors  and  their  loads  are  supported  upon 
cast-iron  columns  built  in  with  the  masonry.  The  constructive 
work  is  protected  by  terra-cotta  and  other  fireproof  material. 

The  style  of  the  building  is  in  the  German  renaissance  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  first  two  stories  of  the  front  are 
built  of  heavy  blocks  of  brown  stone  ;  the  third,  to  and  includ- 
ing the  ninth,  of  red  pressed  brick,  trimmed  with  elaborately 
carved  brown  stone  and  terra-cotta,  while  the  three  upper 
stories  are  in  the  angle  of  the  picturesque  roof  of  gables  and 
towers — a  total  of  twelve  stories  above  the  sidewalk. 

Floor  Plan. — The  plan  Fig.  75  shows  a  typical  floor  of 
the  building,  divided  into  light-courts,  halls,  stairways,  and 
rooms.  The  east  court,  nearest  Fifth  Avenue,  is  13  ft.  wide 
by  65  ft.  long;  the  extreme  west  court  is  13  ft.  wide  by  58  ft. 


HOTEL    WALDORF. 


16; 


long,  and  the  centre  or  garden  court  is  40  by  50  ft.  Skylights 
of  iron,  glass,  and  copper  cover  the  first  story  at  the  bottom  of 
the  east  and  west  court,  while  the  first  story  of  the  garden 
court  is  covered  with  a  revolving  dome  skylight  107  ft.  in  cir- 
cumference, constructed  of  cast-iron,  glass,  and  copper. 

The  main  stairway,  opposite  the  three  elevators,  and  the 


FIG.  74.— THE  WALDORF. 

stairway  from  the  long  hall,  are  constructed  of  Cast-iron  strings, 
cast-iron  risers,  and  white  marble  treads,  guarded  by  orna- 
mental wrought-iron  and  cast-iron  railings.  The  elevator 
fronts  are  also  constructed  of  the  same  material,  and  enclosed 


i68 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


on  the  front  with  exquisitely  wrought  grille-work  ;  the  lower 
stories  have  the  jambs  of  the  elevator  enclosure  covered  with 
onyx  and  glass. 


EA5T   ' 

Fl  FTH     AVENUE 


F:IG.  75. — TYPTCAI  FLOOR  PLAN. 
The  elevator  enclosure  of  the  west   side  is  constructed  of 


HOTEL    WALDORF. 


169 


wire-work  and  angle-iron,  surrounded  by  a  staircase  built  of 
cast-iron  strings,  cast  risers,  and  slate  treads. 

Beam  Plan. — On  account  of  the  construction  being  simi- 
lar throughout,  only  that  portion  of  the  building  is  shown 

"To" V5C5*' 


---*--•-- 


-  --* 


. -i ET^n>' 

FIG.  76. — BEAM  PLAN  AT  FIFTH  AVENUE  END. 

bounded  by  Fifth  Avenue  and  the  east  light-court ;  the  plan 
represents  the  arrangement  of  the  columns,  girders,  and  beams 
above  the  first  story. 


I/O  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION   IN  BUILDINGS. 

The  columns  are  so  arranged  upon  the  plan,  Fig.  76,  to  not 
interfere  with  the  planning  of  the  rooms ;  the  beams  and  gir- 
ders being  spaced  to  support  175  Ibs.  per  square  foot  of  iloor 
surface,  which  includes  the  total  live  and  dead  load.  The 
cross-girders  are  two  15'.'  X  125  Ibs.,  and  two  15"  X  150  Ibs. 
per  yard  I-beams,  depending  upon  the  span  ;  the  beams  of  the 
24.0  span  are  15"  X  125  Ibs.  per  yard,  of  the  19.2  span  lo^-"  X  90 
Ibs.  per  yard,  with  smaller  beams  in  the  shorter  spans,  all  spaced 
from  3  ft.  6  in.  to  4  ft.  4  in.  centres. 

The  columns  range  from  16"  x  16"  X  i^-"  in  the  basement 
to  7"  X  7"  X  f"  in  the  roof.  The  connections  with  the  floor 
beams  and  girders  are  made  similar  to  the  detail  of  cast-iron 
columns  with  iron  girders  under  chapter  on  Column  Connec- 
tions. The  outer  or  wall  columns  of  this  portion  of  the  plan, 
as  well  as  those  throughout  the  building,  extend  through  the 
entire  height  of  the  masonry,  resting  upon  cast-iron  foot-blocks 
and  rock  bottom.  The  inside  columns,  or  those  marked  81  to 
84,  87  to  90,  93  and  94,  are  all  supported  upon  heavy  double 
box  girders  in  the  ceiling  over  the  large  dining-room  of  the 
first  story  ;  these  girders  are  four  in  number,  4  ft.  in  depth  at 
the  centre,  32  in.  in  width,  and  36  to  38  ft.  in  length,  and  sup- 
ported upon  large  cast-iron  columns  16  in.  in  diameter. 

The  slope  of  the  entire  roof  is  constructed  of  6-in.  light 
I-beam  rafters,  placed  about  4  ft.  centres  and  covered  with 
3"X  3"X  T's  25  in.  centres  supporting  porous  roofing-blocks; 
then  finished  off  with  English  roofing-tile.  The  entire  con- 
struction of  the  gables  and  towers  is  similar  to  the  main  roof. 

THE  POSTAL  TELEGRAPH  BUILDING. 

The  Postal  Telegraph  Building,  as  designed  by  George 
Edward  Harding  and  Gooch,  architects,  at  the  corner  of 
Murray  Street  and  Broadway,  New  York,  is  a  fireproof  struct- 
ure fourteen  stories  in  height,  with  a  sub-basement  and  cellar 
below  the  sidewalk.  The  constructive  material  is  of  cast-iron 


THE   POSTAL    TELEGRAPH  BUILDING. 


171 


columns  and  steel  floor  beams  and  girders  throughout.  Above 
the  sixth  story  the  walls  are  carried  on  steel  girders,  thus 
economizing  the  floor  space  on  the  lower  stories. 

The   entrance  is   30  feet  wide,  semicircular  in   shape,  and 
from  it  the  doors  leading  to  the  main  hall,  store,  messenger, 


FIG.  77.— THE  POSTAL  TELEGRAPH  BUILDING,  NEW  YORK. 

.and  despatch  rooms.  This  circular  entrance  is  trimmed  largely 
with  choice  marbles,  with  which  material  the  main  hall,  as  well 
as  all  the  halls,  are  wainscoted. 

Mosaic  tiling  is   employed   in   the   hallways  and   in  other 


I72  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

prominent  places  throughout  the  building,  which  aid  in  making 
it  one  of  the  attractive  and  complete  structures  in  Broadway. 

The  entrance  is  flanked  by  massive  piers  projecting  from 
the  main  walls,  and  capped  by  bas-reliefs  representing  light  and 
electricity. 

Indiana  limestone  effectively  carved  and  wrought  is  carried 
up  four  stories;  above  the  fourth  story  the  building  is  finished 
in  light  gray  brick,  with  terra-cotta  ornamentation. 

All  partitions  are  constructed  of  terra-cotta  or  fireproof 
blocks ;  the  fireproof  floor  arches  are  covered  with  a  smooth 
surface  of  Portland  cement. 

Iron  stairways  with  marble  steps  extend  from  the  main 
floor  to  roof,  and  from  large  passenger  elevators  give  access 
to  all  the  floors,  while  two  express  elevators  are  used  exclu- 
sively for  the  four  upper  stories. 

The  building  covers  a  plot  of  ground  70  feet  2f  in.  on 
Broadway  by  155  feet  6^  in.  on  Murray  Street,  with  an  exten- 
sion at  the  west  end  north  from  Murray  Street. 

The  beams  and  girders  are  arranged  to  support  175  Ibs.  per 
square  foot  of  floor  surface,  the  beams  being  15  in.  by  41  and 
12  in.  by  32  Ibs.  per  foot  spaced  from  4  to  4  feet  6  inches 
centre. 

The  construction  of  the  column  joints  and  beam  connec- 
tions are  similar  to  those  of  the  Waldorf. 


CHAPTER   IX. 


WIND-BRACING. 

THE  subject  of  wind-bracing  is  receiving  considerable  atten- 
tion at  the  present  time  among  those  directly  interested  in  the 
designing  and  constructing  of  high  and  narrow  buildings. 

Very  many  criticisms  by  en- 
gineers have  appeared  from  time 
to  time  in  the  weekly  and  monthly 
periodicals  ;  but  we  have  failed  to 
see  any  system,  with  one  or  two 
exceptions,  proposed  that  would 
meet  the  full  requirements  of 
architects. 

It  is  no  doubt  a  difficult  prob- 
lem at  the  least,  and  whether 
lateral  bracing  is  adopted  will  de- 
pend in  a  great  measure  upon 
examples  of  buildings  which  have 
been  previously  built,  and  which 
seem  to  be  perfectly  secure  fr.om 
all  lateral  displacement. 

In  using  columns  and  girders 
made  up  of  plates  and/  angles  with 
knee-braces,  as  those  shown  under 
.chapter  on  Column  Connections,  a 
$  great  amount  of  rigidity  is  secured, 
and  these  connections  will  serve 
in  the  majority  of  cases  where  the 
regular  transverse  bracing  would 
interfere  with  the  necessary  openings  in  the  partition  and 
otherwise  with  the  planning  of  the  structure. 

i73 


FIG.  78. — VENETIAN  BUILDING, 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 


174  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION   IN  BUILDINGS. 

The  action  of  the  wind  against  the  side  of  a  building  pro- 
duces the  effects  of  overturning  and  shear,  both  greatest  at 
the  highest  point  of  external  resistance,  which  is  the  roof  of 
adjoining  building,  if  there  be  any,  or  otherwise  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  The  overturning  or  the  lift  on  the  windward  side 
is  likely  always  to  be  less  than  the  resistance  of  dead  weight ; 
but  the  shear  is  liable  to  be  overlooked,  and  is  probably  the 
cause  of  the  collapse  of  most  of  the  buildings  destroyed  by 
wind,  especially  during  construction,  while  the  walls  are  newly 
set. 

Wind-pressure. — Experimenters  upon  the  subject  of  wind- 
pressure  assume  that  the  horizontal  pressure  of  wind  against 
an  inclined  surface,  as  a  roof,  is  about  I  Ib.  per  square  foot  per 
degree  of  inclination  to  the  horizontal.  For  example,  if  the 
roof  has  an  inclination  of  30  degrees  with  the  horizontal,  the 
pressure  of  the  wind  will  be  about  30  Ibs.  per  square  foot  of  sur- 
face. Roofs  are  generally  designed  for  pressures  averaging 
about  40  Ibs.  per  square  foot,  but  the  sides  upon  which  the 
roof  rests  for  little  or  none. 

The  experiments  of  the  Forth  bridge  engineers,  and  also 
other  experiments,  show  conclusively  that  the  pressure  per 
unit  of  surface  is  less  over  a  large  area  than  over  a  small  one, 
and  what  intensity  of  wind-pressure  it  is  proper  to  assume  upon 
a  high  building  is  an  important  question  to  settle.  We  are 
well  aware  that  wind  develops  considerable  energy  at  times, 
and  we  cannot  expect  to  resist  its  utmost  power  in  the  design- 
ing of  the  structure  ;  but  we  can  at  least  estimate  for  high 
velocities  of  wind,  say  from  30  to  50  Ibs.  per  square  foot,  and 
low  intensities  of  strain  in  the  material. 

Wind-bracing  in  the  Venetian  Building,  Chicago,  111.— 
An  article  by  C.  T.  Purdy,  C.E.,  in  the  Engineering  News,  of 
December,  1891,  describes  in  detail  the  wind-bracing  used  in 
the  Venetian  Building,  Chicago. 

The   Venetian    Building   is   probably  as  well   braced   and 


WIND-BRA  CING. 


its  bracing  as  well  disposed  as  any  building   using  a  system 
of  lateral  braces. 

Fig.  79  is  a  diagram  of  the 
floors  of  this  building,  show- 
ing the  arrangement  of  the 
columns  and  position  of  the 
bracing. 

Fig.  80  shows  the  position  of 
the  struts  and  diagonals  and  the 
position  they  occupy  in  relation 
to  the  floors. 

The  struts  of  the  first  and 
second  stories  are  I  foot  9  in. 
below  the  next  story  above,  and 
those  above  slightly  less. 

Fig.  8 1  is  a  strain  sheet  for 
the  wind-bracing,  excepting  only 
the  column  strains,  which  were 
included  in  the  schedule  given 
for  the  vertical  loads  on  the 
columns. 

The  dead  weight  of  the 
floors  is  taken  at  100  Ibs.  per 
square  foot.  The  live  load  on 
the  first  floor  80  Ibs.,  and  floors 
above  60  Ibs.  The  whole  of  the  FIG.  79.— TYPICAL  FLOOR  PLAN  OF 
dead  load  and  about  one  half  VENETIAN  BUILDING,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 
the  live  load  is  carried  into  the  columns. 

The  calculations  of  the  strains  given  on  the  diagram  were 
made -as  follows  :  Each  set  of  bracing  was  figured  to  resist  the 
wind-force  for  an  area  equal  to  half  the  height  of  a  story  and 
half  the  height  of  the  next  one  above  by  21  ft.  7  in.  multiplied 
by  40  Ibs.,  the  calculated  wind-pressure  per  square  foot  of 
surface. 

The  total  shear  at  any  of  these  points-*-///*?/  is,  at  any  floor 


176 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


level — is  equal  to  the  sums  of  the  shears  acting  directly  on  the 

points  above  it.  It  has  not 
been  deemed  necessary, 
however,  to  carry  the  whole 
amount  of  this  shear  into 
the  bracing,  as  in  any  build- 
ing the  dead  weight  of  the 
structure  itself  acts  to  some 
extent  to  counteract  the 
distorting  effect  due  to  lat- 
eral force. 

These  shears  are  reduced 
to  some  extent  on  this  ac- 
count. The  bracing  is  then 
made  to  resist  70  per  cent 
of  the  wind-pressure. 

All  the  columns  affected 
by  this  bracing  have  been 
made  continuous  from  the 
basement  to  the  second 
floor. 

In  the  cases  where  the 
rods  come  down  to  the  first 
floor  level  the  bottom  strut 
is  connected  to  the  columns 
so  as  to  take  both  tension 
and  compression  horizon- 
tally, as  well  as  to  resist  the 

vertical  component   of   the 
PART  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  AND  WIND-    rod  gtrain>     This  insur£S  the 
STRAIN      DIAGRAM     OF     THE    VENETIAN  r  , 

BUILDING  resistance  of  both  columns 

to  the  horizontal  thrust  of 

the  strut,  whichever  pair  of  rods  is  strained,  and  the  columns 
are  calculated  to  resist  the  bending  moment  incurred,  as  well 
as  to  carry  their  regular  column  load. 


FIG.  80. 


FIG.SI. 


WIND-  BA'A  CIA  G.  1 77 

The  horizontal  struts  from  the  first  to  the  eighth  floor  are 
made  of  two  nine-inch  channels,  arranged  somewhat  similar  to 
those  shown  on  the  Havemeyer  Building ;  flat  latticing  2\  X  i 
in.,  being  used  top  and  bottom  in  place  of  a  plate. 

Above  the  eighth  floor  lighter  channels  were  used. 

The  struts  are  reinforced  at  the  pier  points  to  resist  the 
bending  moment  of  the  strut  caused  by  moving  the  pier 
centre  so  far  from  the  centre  of  the  column. 

The  diagonal  steel  rods  are  all  dimensioned  for  20,000  Ibs. 
unit  strain,  and  no  rod  is  less  than  -J  inch  square.  • 

All  these  rods  are  provided  with  turn-buckles. 

The  channel  struts  are  so  arranged  between  the  columns 
that  the  rods  pass  each  side  of  the  column  girders,  as  shown 
on  Fig.  80.  By  this  arrangement  they  do  not  interfere  with 
the,  door-openings  in  the  partitions. 

There  is  but  slight  connection  made  to  these  columns  by 
the  horizontal  struts.  The  struts  are  planed  at  both  ends  and 
no  clearance  is  allowed  for  connection,  so  that  they  have 
butting  joints  to  the  columns.  Open  holes  are  provided  for 
four  rivets  connecting  the  columns,  but  these  are  hardly 
necessary. 

Underneath  the  end  of  the  strut  is  a  solid  cast-iron  block, 
and  underneath  the  block  are  two  bracket-angles,  secured  to 
the  column  with  sufficient  rivet  area  to  resist  the  vertical  com- 
ponent of  the  rods  in  this  direction,  Above  the  end  of  the 
strut  is  another  cast-iron  block,  planed  on  top  and  bottom  to 
fit  in  tightly  between  the  strut  and  the  cap  plate  of  the 
column.  This  block  is  made  to  fit  the  recess  made  by  the 
flanges  of  the  Z-bars  so  closely  that  the  f-inch  cap  plate  is 
brought  into  direct  shear  entirely  around  three  sides  of  the 
block.  The  shear  resistance  of  the  plate  together  with  the 
weight  of  the  beam  directly  upon  it  are  more  than  enough  to 
resist  the  upward  vertical  component  of  the  rods.  The  use  of 
cast-iron  blocks  in  this  connection  has  been  found  very  con- 
venient, for  it  often  occurs  that  the  bracket  .angles  cannot  be 


178  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

brought  directly  under  the  channels  of  the  strut,  and  the 
medium  between  the  strut  and  the  bracket  angles  must  act  as 
a  beam  as  well  as  a  filler. 

From  the  above  system  of  bracing  we  find  that  every 
weight  caused  by  the  horizontal  wind-pressure  against  a  building 
is  transmitted  through  its  own  system  of  triangles  to  the  base  or 
foundation. 

The  load  on  any  brace  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  weights 
upon  its  system  between  it  and  the  upper  portion  or  unsupported 
end  of  the  building. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  wind-pressure  need  not  be 
considered  below  the  fifth  or  sixth  story,  this  being  the  aver- 
age height  of  adjoining  buildings. 

CURTAIN  WALLS. 

Section  485  of  the  New  York  Building  Law,  given  in 
Chapter  I  of  this  volume,  describes  the  thicknesses  and 
manner  of  supporting  the  curtain  walls  of  the  skeleton  frame, 
and  will  not  be  repeated.  In  making  a  comparison  between 
that  required  by  the  skeleton  frame  and  the  old  method  we 
find  that  considerable  space  is  gained  on  the  inside  measure- 
ments of  the  building.  In  the  ordinary  method,  by  the  same 
law,  in  an  example  of  a  warehouse,  store,  factory  of,  say,  twelve 
stories  (150  feet  in  height)  : 

"If  over  85  feet  in  height  and  not  over  100  feet  in  height, 
the  walls  shall  not  be  less  than  28  inches  thick  to  the  height  of 
25  fe^t  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height ;  thence 
not  less  than  24  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  50  feet  or  to  the 
nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height  ;  thence  not  less  than  20 
inches  thick  to  the  height^of  75  feet  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of 
beams  to  that  height ;  and  thence  not  less  than  16  inches  thick 
to  the  top. 

"  If  over  100  feet  in  height  each  additional  25  feet  in  height 
or  part  thereof,  next  above  the  curb,  shall  be  increased  4 


WIND-BRA  CING. 


179 

inches  in  thickness,  the  upper  100  feet  of  wall  remaining  the 
same  as  specified  for  a  wall  of  that  height. 
Or,  by  the  ordinary  method  : 


1st  story 36  inches 

2d      ^     .o «       " 

3d      «     32      « 

4th     "     "       " 

5th     "     28      " 

6th     "  .  "       " 


7th  story 24  inches 

8th     "     " 

9th      "     20      " 

loth     "     ....."       " 

nth     " 16      " 

I2th     "  .."       " 


By  the  skeleton  construction : 


I  st  story 20  inches 

2d      "      " 

3d      "     «       « 

4th     "     "       " 

5th     "     16      " 

6th     "  ..  ««       " 


7th  story. 16  inches 

8th     "     " 

9th     "     12      " 

loth     "     "       «« 

nth     "     e "       " 

I2th      "  .."       « 


The  height  from  floor  to  floor  is  generally  12  feet  6  inches. 

Curtain-wall  Supports. — The  simplest  supports  for  cur- 
tain walls  are  these  girders  made  up  of  beams  and  channels, 
as  shown  in  Figs.  82  and  84.  These  girders  extend  between 
the  wall  columns  at  about  the  floor  levels  and  are  made  to  re- 
ceive the  floor  arch  next 
the  wall,  as  shown  in  the 
detail,  which  also  shows 
the  section  of  the  sleepers, 
floor  arches,  and  concrete 
filling. 

The  outer  beam  of 
the  girder  is  placed  4 
inches  from  the  party 


FIG.  82. 


FIG.  83. 


line,  so  that  a  width  of  brick  can  be  built  in  to  properly  fire- 
proof the  girder.     Then,  to  support  the  overhanging  portion  of 


i8o 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS, 


the  brick  wall,  a  plate  rests  upon  and  is  secured  to  the  top  of 
the  girder. 

Probably  a  better  manner  of  building  this  outer  4  or  8  inch 
wall  would  be  by  that  shown  at  the  section  of  the  channels, 
Fig.  84.  The  channel  flanges  are  turned  inside,  so  as^to  give  a 
perfectly  square  and  smooth  surface  for  building  this  over- 
hanging portion  of  the 
wall.  Then  again  if  the 


curtain  wall  occurs  along 
the  wall  of  a  higher  build- 
ing the  space  back  of  the 
channel  is  clear,  the  plate 
being  secured  after  the 
section  is  filled  in. 

This  same  thing  may 
be  accomplished  in  heav- 


FIG.  84. 


FIG.  85 


ier  walls  when  two  beams  are  not  sufficient  and  plate  or  lattice 
girders  are  used,  as  shown  in  the  sections,-  Fig.  83.  In  Fig.  85 
the  plate  girder  is  raised  sufficiently  to  receive  the  floor  arch 
upon  the  bottom  flange;  then  the  joint  of  columns  is  about 
the  centre  of  the  girder.  In  Fig.  85  an  angle  is  riveted  to 
the  web  of  the  plate  girder  to  receive  the  floor  arch. 

The  manner  of  connecting  these  wall  girders  is  shown  in 
the  chapter  on  Column  Connections. 

The  entire  fronts  of  these  skeleton  buildings  may  be  sup- 
ported in  such  a  manner  that  an  entire  story  or  number  of 
stories  may  be  removed  without  injury  to  the  other  portion  of 
the  structure — or,  in  other  words,  an  exterior  finish  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  rest  of  the  construction,  an  example  of  which 
is  shown  by  Fig.  86  (a  section  of  the  spandrel  under  the  front 
windows  of  the  Venetian  Building,  Chicago,  111.);  the  outside 
view  or  perspective  is  shown  by  Fig.  78,  Chapter  VIII. 

These  spandrel  beams  are  placed  over  the  windows  in  such 
a  way  that  all  the  load  is  taken  off  from  the  window-caps,  how- 
ever it  may  appear  in  the  finish.  The  outside  is  covered  with 


WIND- BRA  CING. 


181 


brick,  terra-cotta,tile,  marble,  or  granite,  or  combination  of  these 
materials,  as  the  architect  may  design,  supported  by  the  above 
spandrel  beams.  The  section,  Fig.  87,  represents  a  portion  of 
the  front  wall  of  the  Ashland  Block,  Chicago,  111. ;  the  wall  is 
only  8  in.  thick,  and  the  spandrel  channel  is  15  in.  by  32  Ibs. 
per  foot,  with  an  angle  riveted  to  the  upper  edge  to  make  a 


PIG.  86. 


FIG.  87. 


broad  support  for  the  wall.  In  Fig.  86  the  wall  is  16  in.  thick, 
and  to  support  the  overhanging  thickness  cast  brackets  are 
secured  to  a  20  in.  X  64  Ibs.  per  foot  I-beam,  upon  which  is 
secured  a  5-in.  Z-bar.  In  each  case  the  terra-cotta  window 
head  is  secured  to  the  construction. 

Figs.  88  and  89  represent  other  modes  of  supporting  the 
spandrel  walls.  Fig.  88  is  another  section  of  the  Ashland 
Block,  and  Fig.  89  is  a  section  of  the  spandrel  walls  of  the  Fair 
Building,  Chicago.  In  all  of  these  cases  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  spandrel  beams  or  girders  connect  to  the  columns  near 
their  centres;  the  building  line  represents  the  faces  of  piers  or 
face  of  the  building. 

An  excellent  arrangement  for  radiators  under  the  window- 


1 82 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


sills  is  shown  in  Fig.  89 ;  the  spandrel  wall  is  only  8f  in.  irt 
thickness  at  this  point. 

In  almost  all  of  the  above  sections  the  spandrel  beams  are 
so  arranged,  as  to  size  and  position,  that  the  floor  beams  are 


FIG.  88. 


FIG.  89. 


not  required  to  be  framed;  this,  if  carried  out  extensively 
throughout  the  construction,  will  save  considerable  in  the  cost 
of  the  building. 


CHAPTER   X. 
THE  OLD  COLONY  BUILDING,  CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS. 

THE  Old  Colony  Building  is  situated  on  Van  Buren  and 
Dearborn  streets,  Chicago,  111.  It  extends  from  Dearborn 
Street  to  Plymouth  Place,  thus  having  a  frontage  on  broad 
streets  of  368  feet.  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the  new  business 
•centre  which  has  grown  up  on  Dearborn  Street,  and  is  accessi- 
ble to  all  suburban  and  street  transportation,  hotels,  Post- 
office,  Board  of  Trade,  Custom  House,  and  the  United  States 
Courts. 

It  was  designed  by  Messrs.  Holabird  and  Roche,  archi- 
tects, assisted  in  the  construction  by  Corydon  T.  Purdy,  C.E., 
to  whom  the  author  is  indebted  for  the  information.  The 
exterior  is  of  blue  Bedford  stone  to  the  fifth  story,  and  above 
of  Philadelphia  white  brick  with  white  terra-cotta  trimmings. 

The  entrances  from  the  three  streets  are  finished  in  elegance 
and  richness  of  design  with  marble  and  elaborate  Italian 
mosaic.  The  interior  finish  is  of  the  best,  with  the  corridors 
all  wainscoted  in  marble  and  the  floors  of  mosaic. 

The  building  consists  of  sixteen  floors,  basement  and  attic, 
of  which  the  plan  Fig.  91  is  a  typical  floor.  This  plan  de- 
scribes clearly  the  arrangement  of  the  offices,  divided  in  a  sys- 
tematic and  advantageous  manner,  and  on  account  of  the 
favorable  site  all  the  offices  open  to  the  outer  air  and  are  all 
connected  to  the  wide  and  commodious  corridor  in  the  centre 
of  the  building. 

Six  large  elevators  with  the  newest  appliances,  constructed 


184  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

of  iron,  extend  from  basement  to  attic  and  are  arranged   as 
shown  on  each  side  of  the  stairway.     Directly  to  the  right  of 


FIG.  90. — THE  OLD  COLONY  BUILDING. 

the  stairs  is  the  boiler-flue,  which  is  constructed  of  iron  andi 
encased  in  brick. 


THE   OLD   COLONY  BUILDING,   CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.      185 

In  construction  it  is  probably  as  perfect  a  type  of  the  steel 
skeleton  building  as  any  that  has  been  erected.  There  are  no 
self-supporting  walls,  and  all  loads — brick,  terra  cotta,  tile,  and 
stone  in  walls  and  floors — are  carried  at  each  floor-level  on  the 
steel  frame. 

The  special  features  of  its  construction  pertain  to  the  can- 
tilever supports  at  the  south  end,  the  lateral  strength  of  the 
structure,  the  column  construction,  and  the  protection  against 
fire. 

These  have  all  attracted  considerable  attention  from  archi- 
tects and  engineers  during  the  World's  Fair  months,  and  are 
deserving  of  special  notice  in  this  volume. 

To  protect  the  steel  skeleton  frame  against  fire,  special 
precaution  was  taken,  and  all  the  columns  were  entirely  sur- 
rounded with  a  3-inch  hollow  tile  wall,  which  in  turn  was 
covered,  in  the  case  of  the  outside  wall  columns,  with  a  solid 
brick  wall  on  three  sides  13  inches  thick.  Then,  again,  these 
outside  columns  were  placed  2  feet  back  from  the  street  line, 
in  contrast  with  columns  which  are  usually  placed  12  inches 
from  the  street  line, — which  is  so  common  in  that  city, — and 
protected  from  any  outside  heat  by  only  4  or  5  inches  of 
limestone  or  granite,  or  even  of  brick. 

The  Building  Law  of  Chicago  especially  calls  for  the  above 
mentioned  protection  : 

"  SEC.  101.  Fireproofing  of  the  steel  and  iron  structural 
parts  of  buildings  shall,  for  the  purposes  of  this  ordinance,  be 
defined  as  follows :  'All  iron  and  steel  used  for  a  supporting 
member  of  the  external  construction  of  any  building  exceeding 
90  feet  in  height  shall  be  protected,  as  against  the  effects  of 
external  changes  of  temperature  and  of  fire,  by  a  covering  of 
brick,  terra  cotta,  or  fire-clay  tile,  completely  enveloping  said 
structural  members  of  iron  and  steel.  If  of  brick,  it  shall  be 
not  less  than  8  inches  thick.  If  of  hollow  tile,  it  shall  be  not 
less  than  6  inches  thick,  and  there  shall  be  at  least  two  sets  of 


1 86 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


THE    OLD    COLONY  BUILDING,   CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.     1 87 

air-spaces  between  the  iron  and  steel  members  and  the  outside 
of  the  hollow-tile  covering.  In  all  cases  the  brick  or  hollow 
tile  shall  be  bedded  in  mortar  close  up  to  the  iron  or  steel 
members,  and  all  joints  shall  be  made  full  and  solid.  Where 
skeleton  construction  is  used  for  the  whole  or  part  of  a  building, 
these  enveloping  materials  shall  be  independently  supported 
on  the  skeleton  frame  for  each  individual  story.' 

"  SEC.  102.  If  iron  or  steel  plates  are  used  in  each  story  for 
the  support  of  this  covering  within  the  said  story,  such  plate 
must  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  carry,  within  the  limits  of 
fibre  strain  for  iron  and  steel  elsewhere  specified  in  this  ordi- 
nance, the  enveloping  -material  for  the  said  story,  and  such 
plates  may  extend  to  within  2  inches  of  the  exterior  of  said 
covering. 

"  SEC.  103.  If  terra  cotta  is  used  as  a  part  of  such  fire-proof 
enclosure,  it  shall  be  backed  up  with  brick  or  hollow  tile ; 
whichever  is  used  being,  however,  of  such  dimensions  and  laid 
up  in  such  manner  that  the  backing  will  be  built  into  the 
•cavities  of  the  terra  cotta  in  such  manner  as  to  secure  perfect 
bond  between  the  terra-cotta  facing  and  its  backing. 

"  SEC.  104.  If  hollow  tile  alone  is  used  for  such  enclosure, 
the  thickness  of  the  same  shall  be  made  in  at  least  two  courses, 
breaking  joints  with  and  bonded  into  each  other. 

"  SEC.  105.  The  horizontal  filling  between  the  iron  and  steel 
vertical  members  of  skeleton  construction  shall  be  of  brick, 
terra  cotta,  or  hollow  tile,  and,  in  case  of  less  thickness  than  12 
inches,  subject  to  the  same  conditions  as  to  bond  and  courses 
as  specified  for  the  enveloping  materials  of  structural  members, 
and  these  horizontal  fillings  shall  be  bonded  into  the  enclosures 
of  the  vertical  members. 

"  SEC.  106.  The  upper  surfaces  of  all  breaks  or  offsets  in 
external  coverings  and  fillings  and  walls,  as  well  as  the  tops 
of  walls,  shall  be  covered  with  stone,  terra-cotta,  or  fire-clay 


188  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

copings  set  in  cement  mortar  and  having  lapped  joints  pointed 
with  cement. 

"  SEC.  107.  The  internal  structural  parts  of  buildings  of  the 
skeleton  construction  shall  be  fireproofed  by  coverings  of 
brick,  hollow  tile,  porous  terra  cotta,  or  plastering  on  metal 
lath  and  metal  furring. 

"  SEC.  108.  In  the  case  of  buildings  of  Class  I  the  coverings 
for  columns  shall  be,  if  of  brick,  not  less  than  8  inches  thick  ;, 
if  of  hollow  tile,  these  coverings  shall  be  in  two  consecutive 
layers,  each  not  less  than  2\  inches  thick.  If  the  fire-proof 
covering  is  made  of  porous  terra  cotta,  it  shall  consist  of  at 
least  two  layers  not  less  than  2  inches  thick  each. 

"  Whether  hollow  tile  or  porous  terra  cotta  is  used,  the 
two  consecutive  layers  shall  be  so  applied  that  neither  the 
vertical  nor  the  horizontal  joints  in  the  same  shall  be  opposite 
each  other,  and  each  course  shall  be  so  anchored  and  bonded 
within  itself  as  to  form  an  independent  and  stable  structure. 

"  In  all  cases  there  shall  be  on  the  outside  of  the  tiles  a 
covering  of  plastering  with  any  cement — which  is  established 
as  a  standard  cement  by  the  society  of  civil  engineers  of  the 
northwest — or  of  other  mortar  of  equal  hardness  and  efficiency 
when  set. 

"  SEC.  109.  In  places  where  there  is  trucking  or  wheeling  or 
other  handling  of  packages  of  any  kind,  the  lower  five  feet  of 
the  fireproofing  of  such  pillars  shall  be  encased  in  a  protective 
covering  either  of  sheet  iron  or  oak  plank,  which  covering  shall 
be  kept  continually  in  good  repair. 

"  SEC.  1 10.  If  plastering  on  metallic  lath  be  used  as  fire- 
proofing  for  columns,  it  shall  be  in  two  layers.  The  metallic 
lath  shall  in  each  case  be  fastened  to  metallic  furrings  and  the 
plastering  upon  the  same  shall  be  made  with  cement. 

"  Protection  for  the  lower  five  feet  shall  be  required  in  this 
case  the  same  as  where  porous  terra  cotta  or  hollow-tile  cover- 
ing is  used." 


THE   OLD   COLONY  BUILDING,  CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.     189, 


190 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


THE   LOADS   USED   IN  CALCULATIONS   FOR   THE   BUILDING,    IN 
POUNDS    PER    SQUARE   FOOT   OF   FLOOR. 


On  Beams. 

On  Girders. 

On  Columns. 

On  Foundation. 
Footings. 

7° 

50 

40 

Dead  

9° 

9° 

QO 

QO 

Total  

1  60 

140 

I  ^O 

QO 

The  above  90  Ibs.  of  dead  load  is  made  up  as  follows : 

Floor-arches 35  Ibs. 

Concrete.., 18    " 

Plastering 5    " 

Flooring 4   " 

Iron , 10   " 

Marble  and  Partitions..  .18" 


Total 90  Ibs. 

By  referring  to  the  plan  Fig.  92  the  arrangement  of  beams 
•and  girders  is  seen. 

The  outer  lines  of  girders  on  the  long  sides  of  the  building 
•are  formed  of  a  20- inch  beam  and  angles.  The  two  lines  of 
inside  girders  running  parallel  to  the  above  are  2O-inch  beams 
for  the  longer  spans,  1 5-inch  and  12-inch  beams  for  the  shorter 
spans.  The  columns  supporting  the  girders  are  spaced  about 
22  feet  apart.  The  floor-beams  throughout  the  building  are 
generally  12  inch  by  32  Ibs.  per  foot  spaced  about  5  ft.  6  in. 
apart ;  those  adjoining  the  elevators  for  the  short  spans  are 
9  in.  by  21  Ib.  and  6  in.  by  13  Ibs.  per  foot.  The  entire  work 
being  accurately  and  securely  fitted  with  heavy  knees. 

When  the  planning  of  the  building  began,  the  support  of 
the  south  end  was  the  first  really  difficult  problem  encoun- 
tered. The  other  three  sides  are  bounded  by  streets,  but  this 
.south  end  adjoins  another  property,  which  is  occupied  by  an 


THE    OLD    COLONY  BUILDING,   CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS. 


old   brick    building   six    stones  high   with   exterior  walls  and 
foundation  built  centrally  upon  party  lines. 

A  new  party-wall  foundation  extending  somewhat  over 
both  lots,  and  large  enough  to  carry  its  share  of  a  new  build- 
ing on  this  neighboring  property  would,  of  course,  have  been 
the  best  and  easiest  solution  of  the  problems.  It  could  have 
been  made  without  disturbing  the  old  wall  above  the  first 
floor,  except  to  cut  vertical  openings  in  the  outside  wall  for 


FIG.  93. — FOUNDATION-PLAN,  SHOWING  NUMBER  AND  POSITION  OF  COLUMNS. 

the  steel  columns  which  an  old  party-wall  contract  permitted 
in  any  case.  However  no  arrangement  could  be  made  to  that 
end,  and  it  became  necessary  to  keep  the  foundations  of  the 
new  building  away  from  the  old  wall  entirely  or  shorten  the 
building.  The  cantilever  construction  was  therefore  adopted. 
The  plan  Fig.  93  shows  the  columns,  their  position  and  the 
clay  areas  of  the  foundations.  There  are  thirty-two  columns 
in  all.  All  the  foundations  of  the  building  are  made  of  steel 
beams  and  Portland-cement  concrete,  several  of  them  carrying 
three  or  more  columns  each.  The  areas  are  proportioned  ta 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

3200  Ibs.  per  square  foot  of  dead  load,  including  the  weight 
of  the  foundation. 

This  limit  of  loading  made  it  necessary  to  include  three 
columns  in  each  cantilever  foundation,  and  owing  to  the  larger 
loads  on  the  columns  next  the  street,  Nos.  8  and  25,  it  was 
necessary  to  combine  the  interior  ones  (9  and  24),  making  six 
columns  in  all  on  one  area.  Fig.  94  is  a  vertical  section 
through  the  foundation  for  columns  25,  26,  and  27.  Column 
25  is  3  ft.  6J  in.  from  the  south  party  line  and  placed  upon 
a  triple-web  box  girder  2  ft.  6  in.  wide  by  2  ft.  6  in.  deep, 
which  in  turn  rests  upon  the  ends  of  twenty-four  beams  42 
ft.  loj  in.  long  bedded  in  concrete.  Under  columns  26  and 
.27  there  are  eight  2O-inch  beams  22  ft.  4  in.  and  20  ft.  3^  in. 
long  respectively,  upon  which  the  cast-iron  base  of  each 
respective  column  is  bedded.  This  figure  also  clearly  shows 
box-girder  cantilever  connecting  with  column  26,  and  the  off- 
setting of  the  25th  column  to  its  proper  place  for  the  support- 
ing of  the  wall  and  floors  above.  This  same  construction 
applies  to  all  the  party-line  columns. 

All  the  other  foundations  throughout  the  building  are 
arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  114,  page 
236,  of  this  volume,  with  the  exception  that  very  heavy  beams 
were  used  and  the  height  of  the  steppings  limited  to  two 
layers  of  beams  and  the  lower  bed  of  concrete  about  12  inches 
in  thickness. 

Chicago  Building  Law  relating  to  setting  of  steel  or  iron 
beams  in  foundations : 

"  SEC.  79.  If  steel  or  iron  rails  or  beams  are  used  as  parts  of 
foundations,  they  must  be  thoroughly  imbedded  in  concrete,  the 
ingredients  of  which  must  be  such  that,  after  proper  ramming, 
the  interior  of  the  mass  will  be  free  from  cavities.  The  beams 
or  rails  must  be  entirely  enveloped  in  concrete,  and  around  the 
external  surfaces  of  such  concrete  foundations  there  must  be 
a  coating  of  any  cement  mortar  not  less  than  one  inch  thick. 


THE   OLD   COLONY  BUILDING,  CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.     193 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
.'PARTMENT  OF    3IVIL. 


194  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  JN  BUILDINGS. 

"  SEC.  80.  If  concrete  foundations  are  used  by  themselves 
and  without  the  insertion  of  beams,  the  offsets  on  top  of  same 
shall  not  be  more  than  one  half  the  height  of  the  respective 
courses,  and  such  concrete  foundations  must  not  be  loaded 
more  than  8000  pounds  per  square  foot.  If  reinforced  by  iron 
or  steel  beams,  the  loads  and  offsets  in  the  same  must  be  so 
adjusted  that  the  fibre  strain  upon  the  metal  if  of  iron  shall 
not  exceed  12,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  if  steel,  that  the 
fibre  strain  shall  not  exceed  16,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch." 

The  calculations  of  the  foundations  for  the  three  columns 
relating  to  each  cantilever  are  much  alike,  and  a  description 
of  the  interior  one  may  easily  answer  for  all. 

The  clay  load  was  determined  by  the  following.  The  dead 
load  includes  floors,  columns,  and  coverings,  walls,  etc. 

Live  Load,    Dead  Load,  Total  on  Basement 
Ibs.  Ibs.  Cols.,  Ibs. 

Col.  No.  9 190,400  7 1 2,900  903,300 

"       10 323,700  666,940  990,640 

"       ii 359^40  896,010  1,255,450 

"       22 375,ooo  917,010  1,292,010 

"       23 323,700  666,940  990,640 

"       24 190,400  712,900  903,300 

The  additional  load  of  the  foundation  itself  is  treated  as 
though  concentrated  at  column  centres  and  m  the  same  pro- 
portion as  the  loads  carried  by  the  column.  This  is  not 
theoretically  correct,  though  practically  so,  for  the  weight  of 
the  foundation,  made  as  it  is,  is  very  evenly  distributed,  and 
therefore  its  centre  of  gravity  should  correspond  with  the  cen- 
tre of  gravity  of  the  loads.  The  actual  weight  of  the  founda- 
tions proved  to  be  about  36,000  Ibs.  more  than  the  estimated 
load,  or  about  20  Ibs.  per  square  foot  more  than  the  3200  Ibs* 
figured  for. 


THE   OLD   COLONY  BUILDING,   CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.      1 95 

Quite  sufficient  time  was  allowed  for  the  preliminary  study 
of  this  cantilever  problem,  but  all  the  final  calculations  had 
to  be  made  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

The  column  loads  were  obtained  and  various  efforts  were 
made  to  fix  upon  a  footing  that  would  bring  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  loads  and  resistances  together,  but  none  could  be 
made  on  a  basis  of  3200  Ibs.  per  square  foot  on  the  clay.  The 
plan  shown  fails  of  this  by  about  5^  inches,  the  centre  loading 
being  that  distance  nearer  the  party  wall  than  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  clay  area. 

For  various  practical  reasons,  it  seemed  better  to  construct 
the  work  with  this  variation  of  centres  than  to  recast  all  the 
foundations  of  the  building  to  a  basis  which  would  not  require 
such  a  variation,  or  do  any  of  the  several  other  things  that 
might  have  been  done. 

After  nine  months,  the  average  settlement  of  the  founda- 
tions in  the  building  is  4T3¥  inches,  while  the  average  settlement 
of  the  centre  cantilever  foundation  is  5^  inches,  and  columns 
9  and  24  on  the  small  side  of  the  footing  have  settled  an  inch 
more  than  the  average  of  the  other  four.  The  latter  fact  may 
be  due  in  some  measure  to  the  5^  inches  variation  in  load  and 
resistance  centres,  although  columns  9  and  24  had  received 
90$  to  95%  of  their  full  load,  while  the  other  four  columns  had 
not  received  more  than  75$?,  when  these  observations  were 
taken.  The  explanation  for  the  greater  average  settlement  of 
the  whole  pile  probably  lies  in  the  fact  that  this  area  is  so 
completely  and  closely  surrounded  with  the  other  foundations 
of  the  building  and  of  the  party  wall  of  the  adjoining  building 
that  most  of  the  lines  of  resistance  through  the  clay  structure 
must  necessarily  be  vertical,  and  all  the  advantage  of  its  large 
perimeter  is  lost. 

Wind-bracing— Portal  Arches.— The  lateral  strength  of 
this  building  has  been  provided  for  by  four  sets  of  portal  arches 


196 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS, 


reaching  from  foundation  to  roof,  as  shown  in  the  transverse 

section  Fig.  95,  being  a  sec- 
tion through  columns  6,  n, 
22,  and  27.  Two  other  sets 
similarly  designed  are  placed 
between  columns  the  same 
distance  from  the  other  end 
of  the  building. 

The  position  which  it 
was  to  occupy  was  fixed 
early  in  the  work,  but  the 
portal  construction  was  not 
decided  upon  until  after  the 
contract  was  let  and  it  was 
determined  to  use  Phoenix 
columns.  The  arrangement 
under  which  the  contract 
was  made  was  a  combina- 
tion of  arches  and  tension- 
bars,  and  the  change  was 
made  partially  to  save  the 
eccentric  load  it  brought  on 
the  columns,  but  largely  for 
the  advantage  this  system 
would  have  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  rooms,  being  un- 
obtrusive and  not  injurious 
to  renting  interests. 

The   chief    advantage    of 

FIG.  95. — TRANSVERSE  SECTION  SHOWING  this  construction  is  its  adapt_ 
PORTAL  ARCHES.  ^.j.^        ^    may   be   put    jn~ 

almost  any  building  somewhere  without  serious  injury  to  the 
structure. 


THE   OLD     COLONY  BUILDING,   CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.      197 

Even  the  stores  and  banking  rooms  of  the  building  are  ar- 
ranged with  the  arches,  so  there  will  be  no  serious  reduction 
of  income  nor  an  unpleasant  appearance  in  the  finish.  The 
portal  may  be  fireproofed  so  that  the  space  on  each  side  can 
be  joined  in  one  room,  or  if  they  are  covered  in  a  partition, 
doorways  may  be  cut  through  to  suit  the  arrangement  of  the 
rooms,  except  at  the  extreme  sides.  It  is  also  believed  that  it 
will  stiffen  the  building  more  than  any  system  of  tension  rods 
against  the  minor  vibrations  to  which  Chicago  buildings  in  par- 
ticular are  subjected.  These  vibrations  are  caused  by  street 
traffic  or  anything  else  that  gives  the  neighboring  ground  a 
jar,  and  they  are  felt  in  Chicago  more  than  elsewhere  on 
account  of  the  very  mobile  nature  of  the  clay  soil  that  under- 
lies the  entire  business  portion  of  the  city. 

In  point  of  cost  they  will  compare  favorably  with  any  sys- 
tem of  rod-bracing,  especially  if  the  rods  are  designed  so  that 
doorways  may  be  constructed  through  the  partitions  that  cover 
them. 

In  this  respect  the  rods  are  at  a  disadvantage  in  having  to 
be  doubled  to  resist  wind  from  both  ways,  while  all  the  metal  in 
the  portals  is  strained  from  whichever  way  the  wind  may  blow. 
When  these  tension-rods  are  connected  to  the  struts,  as  they 
generally  are,  the  column  strains  are  eccentric,  while  the  portal 
construction,  detailed  as  it  is  in  this  case,  practically  eliminates 
eccentricity  of  column  strains  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of 
the  system.  The  same  result  as  the  above  in  appearance 
could  be  obtained  by  using  knee-bracing  at  the  ceiling  line  as 
shown  in  Fig.  40,  and  constructing  a  light  fire-proof  arch  par- 
tition, or  suspending  from  the  girder  between  the  column  light 
furring  lath  and  covering  with  the  plaster  finish. 

Sec.  123  of  the  Chicago  Building  Law  calls  for  wind-braces 
in  all  buildings  the  height  of  which  is  more  than  one  and  one 
half  times  their  least  horizontal  dimensions,  and  they  should 


198  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

be  figured  at  not  less  than  30  Ibs.  for  each  square  foot  of  ex- 
posed surface.  The  precautions  against  the  effects  of  wind- 
pressure  may  take  the  form  of  any  one,  or  more,  or  all  of  the 
following  factors  of  resistance  to  wind-pressure :  first,  dead 
weight  of  structure,  especially  in  the  lower  parts;  second, 
diagonal  braces ;  third,  rigidity  of  connections  between  verti- 
cal and  horizontal  members. 

The  accumulated  shears  and  the  resultant  column  strains 
due  to  wind-bracing  in  the  Old  Colony  Building  are  as  follows: 

Shear.  Column  Strain. 

Roof  and  ceiling 7,860  Ibs.  4,220  Ibs. 

Attic  floor 19,580  "  15,660    " 

i6th      "     31,620  "  33.390    " 

1 5th       "     43,570  "  57,820    " 

I4th      "     55,76o  "  89,400    " 

I3th      "     67,900  "  127,170    " 

2d      "     185,120  "  1,006,990    " 

The  strains  in  the  second  row  of  figures  apply  to  the  col- 
umns carrying  the  floors  given  in  the  same  line  in  the  first  row 
of  figures. 

They  increase  the  regular  load  on  the  column  away  from 
the  wind  and  reduce  the  regular  load  on  the  column  next  the 
wind. 

It  matters  little  how  the  initial  loads  were  obtained  so  long 
as  they  were  properly  proportioned,  for  their  full  application 
would  practically  reduce  the  working  column  load,  that  is,  the 
full  dead  load  and  a  small  live  load,  to  zero.  More  than  this 
would,  of  course,  lift  the  columns. 

They   are  equivalent   to   a    pressure   of  about  27   Ibs.   per 
square  foot  over  the  entire  surface  of  one  side  of  the  building 
at  one  time. 
'      The  inertia  of  the  building,  the  strength  of  the  exterior  walls. 


THE    OLD    COLONY  BUILDING,   CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.     1 99 

and  the  stiffness  of  the  connections,  especially  of  beams  to 
columns,  and  the  strength  of  partitions  are  all  supplementary 
to  this  bracing,  and  probably  make  laterally  one  of  the 
strongest  steel-constructed  buildings  in  the  country.  Each 


FIG.  96.  — GENERAL  ELEVATION  OF  PORTAL  ARCHES. 

portal  yas  calculated  independently  of  those  above  and  below, 
for  the  sections  of  both  top  and  bottom  flanges,  thickness  of 
webs,  cross-shear  on  rivets  connecting  curved  flanges,  and  for 
splices  and  connections  both  to  the  columns  and  to  adjoining 


200 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


portals.  The  calculations  were  made  as  though  the  two  halves 
of  each  portal  were  connected  in  the  top  or  straight  flange  with 
an  ordinary  pin  connection.  In  the  actual  construction,  how- 
ever, they  were  riveted  together  to  secure  simplicity  in  detail 


HB$*fr 


I?f5  ?*}'-  2L\b"*-^'*l- 
K_.-^   *  «,]? 

FIG.  97.— DETAIL  OF  ONE  HALF  ELEVATION  OF  PORTAL  ARCH. 

(see  general  elevation,  Fig.  96),  ease  of  erection,  increased  re- 
sistance to  vibration,  a  stiffer  member — which  counts  for  a 
good  deal  during  erection — because  it  carries  a  floor  and  to 
that  extent  must  be  treated  as  a  beam.  In  Fig.  96  the  sizes 
of  arch  and  other  measurements  are  given.  The  stories  are 
about  12  feet  from  floor  to  floor,  the  outer  columns  are  2  feet 
from  the  building  line,  and  the  arches  15  feet  8£  inches  be- 


THE    OLD    COLONY  BUILDING,   CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.     2OI 

tween  columns  and  9  feet  5  inches  high  from  top  of  horizontal 
member  to  crown. 

Each  portal  was  designed  in  two  pieces  as  shown  in  Fig.  97, 
which  is  a  shop  drawing  of  one  piece  as  it  was  delivered  for 
erection. 

The  long  splice  outside  the  column  was  made  in  two  pieces 
to  admit  of  its  erection  after  the  other  iron  around  it  was  in 
place.  This  proved  a  fortunate  precaution,  for  the  delivery  of 
the  portals  was  extremely  slow. 

The  splices  in  the  web  on  each  side  are  in  the  interests  of 
economy.  The  straight  3  X  2%  X  -f-$-in-  angles  are  flush  with 
the  bottom  of  the  regular  12-in.  floor-beams,  and  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  they  can  carry  the  tile  floor-arch.  Each  leg  is 
attached  to  the  portal  below  with  three  lug-angles  and  a  rivet- 
section  equal  to  one  half  the  initial  shear.  The  top  and  bottom 
plates  in  the  centre  have  only  a  few  rivets,  but  enough  to 
make  the  member  good  as  a  beam,  supporting  a  small  floor- 
area,  and  to  ease  the  erection  somewhat. 

The  lightest  metal  used  in  the  arches  near  the  top  of  the 
building  where  the  shears  are  so  small  is  T5^  in.  thick,  the 
flange-angles  being  3"  X  3"  X  -f%">  The  design  calls  for  a 
great  quantity  of  field-rivets,  but  from  what  we  understand 
it  was  such  easy  work  that  this  riveting  was  not  so  costly  as 
might  be  expected.  The  design  is  entirely  new  with  this 
building  and  the  "  Monadnock,"  it  being  put  into  both  build- 
ings at  the  same  time. 

Referring  to  Fig.  98,  the  rest  of  the  beam  connections  and 
column  connections  are. shown.  The  specification  relating  to 
the  detailing  of  the  columns  under  which  the  contract  was  let 
is  as  follows  : 

"  Beams  connecting  to  columns  shall  have  four  rivets  in  the 
bottom  flange  wherever  the  details  of  the  columns  will  permit 
of  that  number,  and  in  all  cases  the  beams  must  extend  as 


202 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION   IN   BUILDINGS. 


closely  as  possible  to  the  axis  of  the  column.  The  top  con- 
nection angles  connecting  the  beams  to  the  columns  shall  be 
omitted  on  all  floors,  and  bent  strips  of  heavy  sheet-iron  or 
especially  designed  wedges  must  be  driven  in  at  the  end  of 


FIG.  98.— DETAIL  OF  COLUMN  CONNECTIONS. 

each  beam  in  place  of  the  top  connection  angle  until  the 
clearance  between  the  end  of  beams  and  the  metal  of  the 
columns  is  tightly  closed.  In  case  the  flange  of  the  columns 
will  not  serve  to  hold  these  wedges  in  place,  some  other 
means  must  be  employed  to  serve  the  same  purpose. 

"  All  columns  shall  be  provided  with  cap-plate  f  inch  thick, 
and,  in  general,  the  columns  shall  be  cut  so  the  floor-beams  of 
girders  shall  rest  directly  upon  them  ;  dependence,  however, 
must  not  be  placed  entirely  on  the  shear  of  the  plate  to  carry 
the  beams.  .  .  .  Columns  shall  be  connected  to  columns,  when 
possible,  by  at  least  four  rivets  passing  through  the  cap-plate, 
and  two  lug-angks,  one  on  each  column.  All  rivets  used  in 


THE    OLD    COLONY  BUILDING,   CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.     2O3 

connecting  beajns  to  columns  must  pass  through  the  lug-angles 
connected  directly  to  the  columns,  and  riveting  such  connec- 
tions to  the  cap-plate  without  a  lug-angle  will  not  be  allowed." 

The  ordinary  Phoenix  columns  did  not  conform  to  the 
specifications,  and  the.  only  system  of  connection  in  use  to  any 
extent  which  it  was  hoped  could  be  made  to  apply  was  the 
Phoenix  improved  column,  of  gusset-plates  and  fillers,  as  de- 
scribed page  57,  Fig.  37.  There  were,  however,  immediately 
three  objections:  first,  the  Phoenix  Company  objected  on  the 
score  of  cost,  it  being  too  great  for  the  price  they  were  to  re- 
ceive per  pound;  second,  it  would  have  added  materially  to 
the  tonnage;  and  third,  the  great  irregularity  of  beams,  not 
only  in  the  spandrels  but  in  the  floors  both  as  to  height  and 
as  to  position  relative  to  the  axes  of  the  columns,  made  even  • 
that  system  seem  impracticable.  Finally  a  general  scheme 
was  devised  for  these  connections  as  mentioned  before  (detail 
Fig.  98). 

In  a  few  cases  where  heavy  spandrel  loads  had  to  be  carried 
16  or  1 8  inches  from  the  centre  of  the  column,  gusset-plates 
and  fillers  were  introduced.  The  gusset-plate  without  the 
fillers  was  also  used  in  all  wind-bracing  columns  to  connect  to 
the  portals.  The  gusset-plates  in  all  cases  extended  the  entire 
length  of  the  column. 

The  architects  have  broken  up  each  long  facade  of  the 
building  by  inserting  at  each  end  a  circular  bay  (see  plans  and 
perspective).  The  metal  construction  of  one  of  these  bays  is 
shown  in  plan  view  Fig.  99,  and  a  small  section  also  shown  on 
the  same  figure.  Twelve-inch  heavy  beams  connect  with  each 
column ;  to  these  beams,  cantilevers  composed  of  plates  and 
angles  are  secured  as  shown,  and  constructed  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  keep  the  floor  and  ceilings  level. 

The  column  in  bay  has  a  bracket  with  a  gusset-plate  ex- 
tending through  the  column.  To  the  o.uter  ends  of  the 


204 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


THE   OLD   COLONY  BUILDING,  CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS.     2OJ 

bracket  bent  channels  and  Z  bars  are  secured  which  support 
the  sprandrel  wall  between  each  story. 


SKTION 

TMSQUGHCEN.OFBAy 


FIG.  100. — SECTION  OF  BAY. 


Fig.  100  shows  a  section  through  the  centre  of  the  bay  at 
the  base.  A  seat  of  solid  granite  extends  around  on  top  of 
bent  15  inch  channels. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

'    U,  ofC. 
ASSOCIATION  LIBRARY 


CHAPTER    XL 
THE   MANHATTAN    LIFE    INSURANCE    BUILDING,  N.   V. 

THE  new  building  erected  by  the  Manhattan  Life  Insur- 
ance Company  at  64,  66,  and  68  Broadway,  New  York,  is 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  the  highest 
office-building  in  the  world.  On  a  comparatively  small  plot 
of  ground  67  feet  front  on  Broadway,  119  feet  deep  on  the 
north  line  to  New  Street,  and  125  feet  on  the  south  line, 
Kimball  &  Thompson,  architects,  and  C.  O.  Brown,  civil 
engineer,  of  New  York,  have  designed  and  constructed  a 
building  of  the  skeleton  type  16  stories  high  on  the  Broadway 
front  and  17  stories  on  New  Street.  It  has  a  height  of  242 
feet  from  the  Broadway  sidewalks  to  the  top  of  the  main  roof 
and  a  height  of  254  feet  4  inches  on  New  Street.  From 
the  main  roof  on  the  Broadway  front  rises  a  tower  termi- 
nating in  a  dome,  which  increases  the  height  of  the  building 
from  the  Broadway  curbstone  to  the  foot  of  the  flagstaff  to 
348  feet.  The  style  of  the  Broadway  and  New  Street  fronts 
is  Italian  Renaissance  richly  ornamented.  The  Broadway 
front  is  of  limestone,  and  the  New  Street  front  of  light-colored 
brick  and  terra  cotta  ;  the  side  walls  are  of  brick  and  supported 
as  is  usual  in  the  skeleton  frame. 

The  special  feature  of  the  Broadway  front  is  the  arched 
doorway  extending  through  two  stories,  with  a  recessed  vesti- 
bule of  stone  extending  back  in  the  building  13  feet,  the 
sides  and  ceiling  being  richly  ornamented.  The  spandrels 
of  the  arch  have  cartouches,  on  which  are  inscribed  the 

206 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y. 


FIG.  ioi.— THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  NEW  YORK. 


2O8  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

dat.e  of  the  foundation  of  the  company,  erection  of  the  build- 
ing, together  with  the  seal  of  the  company.  The  other 
special  features  are  the  sixth  and  seventh  stories,  which  are 
designed  to  emphasize  the  location  of  the  offices  of  the 
company,  and  .which  are  especially  marked  by  the  recessed 
arcade  and  the  projecting  balcony. 

In  the  design  the  architects  have  aimed  to  preserve  as 
much  as  possible  a  solid  and  dignified  character  and  to  avoid 
excessively  large  openings.  From  the  sixth  story  upward 
the  front  is  more  irregular  and  is  marked  by  side  pavilions, 
the  central  portion  being  slightly  raised.  These  pavilions 
terminate  in  small  domes  above  the  main  roof. 

At  the  level  of  the  fourteenth  story  the  front  recedes 
from  the  front  line  of  the  building  for  the  width  of  the  central 
portion  and  is  carried  back  to  the  face  of  the  tower,  which 
stands  feet  7^  in  the  rear  of  the  front.  The  inside  of 
offices  are  lighted  from  a  large  open  court  on  the  south  side 
of  the  building,  thus  giving  every  office  abundant  light  and 
air. 

On  the  sixth 'floor  there  is  a  spacious  rotunda  two  stories 
in  height,  with  a  domed  ceiling  richly  decorated  in  relief. 
This  rotunda  is  designed  for  the  public  entrance  to  the 
company's  offices.  There  are  five  hydraulic  elevators  for 
the  use  of  the  public  and  two  electric  elevators  for  the  use 
of  the  company. 

Careful  attention  has  been  paid  throughout  to  the  fire- 
proof qualities  of  the  building. 

There  is  no  metal  work  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire,  all 
being  covered  with  fire-proof  materials. 

All  the  staircases  above  the  first  story  to  the  eighth  floor 
are  of  marble  and  iron  ;  above  that  of  slate  and  iron.  The 
elevator  fronts  are  of  cast  iron  and  wrought  grille-work 
heavily  electroplated.  All  the  floors,  halls,  and  corridors 
are  laid  with  mosaic.  Marble,  concrete,  hollow  brick,  and 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     2OQ 

tile  are  largely  used  throughout  the  other  portions  of  the 
building. 

A  ventilating  chamber  is  formed  overhead  in  each  corridor 
(but  not  in  elevator  halls),  by  suspending  from  the  floor-beams 
above  two  angles,  one  on  each  side,  running  the  entire  length 
of  corridors  and  to  the  ventilating  shaft,  with  which  the 
chamber  connects.  'On  these  angles  are  placed  3"  X  3"  tees, 
set  2O  inches  on  centres,  for  holding  porous  terra-cotta 
blocks.  Each  office  is  connected  with  the  above  chamber 
by  registers  under  the  control  of  the  tenant.  At  the  head 
of  each  ventilating  shaft  there  are  electric  exhaust  fans, 
supplying  the  motive  power  for  the  extraction  and  discharge 
of  the  vitiated  air. 

The  heating  and  power  system  is  supplied  by  three  marine 
boilers  placed  under  the  sidewalk  on  Broadway. 

The  care  taken  in  the  manufacturing  and  designing  of  the 
steel  skeleton  frame  bore  fruit  in  the  erection  of  the  work. 

The  first  material  was  set  September  I,  1893,  and  the 
setting  of  the  roof-tier  was  completed  December  I,  1893. 
In  spite  of  the.  rapidity  with  which  the  work  was  prosecuted, 
the  only  accident  recorded  against  it  was  the  dropping  of 
a  small  girder  from  the  roof,  which  caused  but  little  damage. 

The  total  weight  of  the  iron  and  steel  work  in  the -building 
amounts  to  5800  tons. 

Some  of  the  sections  are  of  an  enormous  size  and  we-ight. 
The  cantilever  girders  in  the  basement  are  65  feet  lof  inches 
long,  3  feet  4  inches  wide,  and  8  feet  deep.  They  weigh 
eighty  tons  each.  They  came  to  the  building  in  four  sections 
10  inches  wide  and  the  same  length  as  above.  The  cantilever 
girder  over  the  second  story  on  New  Street  is  66  feet  long,  2 
feet  6  inches  wide,  and  4  feet  6  inches  deep.  It  weighs 
forty  tons. 

The  front  of  the  building  is  self-sustaining,  that  is,  it  is 
calculated  to  support  its  own  weight,  but  not  that  of  the 


210  SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

floors.  The  pressure  at  its  base  is  such  that  it  was  necessary 
to  carry  the  base  up  to  the  Broadway  level  of  solid  granite. 
All  the  other  walls  of  the  building,  including  the  New  Street 
front,  are  carried  at  the  floor  levels  upon  steel  girders  inserted, 
between  the  columns. 

Office  Arrangement. — The  subdivision  of  the  rentable 
space  of  a  building  into  offices  determines  at  once  its  financial 
success.  Therefore  a  good  office  building  should  contain, 
as  belonging  to  the  above  requirement,  good  light,  ease  of 
access,  good  service,  etc. 

New  York  real-estate  men  state  that  offices  containing  150 
to  250  square  feet  are  always  to  be  rented  in  a  desirable 
building,  and  the  large  majority  of  office  buildings  are  so 
divided  as  to  permit  of  the  renting  of  such  small  units. 

That  being  the  case,  those  offices  containing  over  the  above 
amount  must  inevitably  be  more  difficult  to  rent. 

In  referring  to  the  plan  Fig.  102,  it  will  be  seen  at  once 
that  such  requirements  as  the  above  have  been  well  applied  in 
this  building.  The  rooms  are  convenient,  well  lighted,  and 
open  into  agreeable  halls  which  are  also  well  lighted  and  acces- 
sible. 

Every  possible  necessity  has  been  provided. 

The  main  elevators,  five  in  number,  as  well  as  the  stairway, 
are  placed  in  a  most  desirable  position.  The  division  of  the 
offices  has  been  based  on  the  experience  of  the  latest  and  best 
examples  of  commercial  buildings,  and  the  interior  court, 
which  is  believed  to  be  the  largest  for  the  size  of  the  building 
of  any  in  existence. 

Arrangement  of  Beams  and  Girders. — The  building  is 
calculated  to  sustain  upon  every  superficial  foot  of  floor  and 
roof  surface  175  pounds — the  standard  fixed  by  the  present 
Building  Law  of  New  York.  This  includes  the  weight  of  beams, 
floor-arches,  hollow-block  partitions,  furniture,  ordinary  safes, 
and  the  weight  of  people  occupying  the  building,  sufficient 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     211 

allowance   being   made   to   have    it   crowded  with    people    as 
closely  as  they  can  be  packed. 

In  addition    to    the    above,    special    provisions  have    been 
made  to  sustain  the  concentrated  weights  of  the  large  vaults 


which  are  located  in  the  basement,  and  also  the  vault  for  the 
company's  use  at  the  fifth  floor. 

In  both  practical  and  theoretical  solutions  the  best  of  the 


212  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Chicago  buildings  seem  at  once  by  comparison  more  successful 
than  those  of  New  York,  in  that  the  former  deal  with  actual 


loads  and  actual  conditions,  and  the  steel  and  masonry  work  is 
exactly  proportioned  to  the  duties  to  be  performed  ;  whereas 
in  the  latter,  on  account  of  the  provisions  of  the  building  law, 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIfiE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     213 

the  buildings  are  -more  massive  structures.  The  difference  in 
principle  between  Chicago  and  New  York  practice  is  not  only 
confined  to  floor  and  column  loads,  but  also  to  the  thickness  of 
walls,  which  involves  heavier  foundations  and  heavier  columns^ 
beams,  girders,  and  consequently  larger  bills  to  pay. 

The  beams  in  this  building  are  proportioned  to  carry  nearly 
the  same  load  as  that  required  by  the  Chicago  Law.  The 
longer  spans  have  12-inch  and  the  smaller  spans  Q-inch  beams 
placed  about  4  to  6£  inches  apart. 

The  different  classes  of  girders  used  throughout  the  building 
are  known  as  single-plate,  double-plate,  box  and  lattice-truss 
girders.  The  single-plate  girders  20  inches  deep  are  generally 
used  lor  the  support  'of  the  floor-beams.  Those  for  the  sup- 
port of  12-  and  i-6-inch  walls  and  the  beams  resting  thereon  are 
.generally  24  inches  deep. 

These  wall-girders,  as  shown  in  the  detail  section  Fig.  104, 
are  supplied  with  stiffeners  at  the  ends  and  at  intervals  in  the 
length  of  girder  of  not  over  three  feet  between  centres. 

The  double-plate  and  box  girders  are  used  for  the  support  of 
2O-inch  walls  and  over.  Those  for  the  2O-inch  walls  are  spread 
to  make  15^  inches  in  width  over  flanges  ;  those  for  24-inch  walls 
to  1 8  inches  over  flanges  ;  those  for  28-inch  walls  to  be  20  inches 
over  flanges ;  and  for  greater  thickness  of  walls  are  made  in  like 
proportion.  The  stiffeners  of  the  2O-inch  and  24-inch  wall- 
girders  are  shown  in  the  detail,  and  spaced  the  same  as  in 
single-plate  girders.  All  double-plate  girders  are  supplied 
with  stay-plates  on  top  and  bottom  sides,  9"xf",  of  lengths 
sufficient  to  cover  over  flanges,  and  are  riveted  to  each  flange- 
angle  with  three  rivets.  These  plates  are  staggered  in  spacing, 
so  that  the  upper  plate  comes  over  the  centre  of  space  be- 
tween the  lower  ones,  which  allows  the  brick  walls  to  be  built 
through  the  girders  and  retain  a  proper  bond. 

The  row  of  girders  in  New  Street  wall  (see  cross-line  section) 
at  Level  of  sixth  floor,  the  flanges  of  which  are  too  close  to 


214 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


admit  of  the  width  of  a  brick,  have  been  run  in  solid  with  con- 
crete. 

The  box  girders  are  of  two  kinds — those  made  of  two  webs,, 
angles   and  cover-plates,  and  those  of  a  series  of  single-web. 


3OWALLG/RDER 

ST/PFE/VER 


%&te.X4 

FIG.  104. — SECTION  OF  NEW  STREET  AND  SIDE  WALLS. 

girders,  bolted  together  with  separators  between,  and  placeoj 
•  at  intervals  of  not  over  three  feet  on  centres. 

Cast-iron  Columns. — Throughout  the  lower  stories  and 
largely  through  the  interior  of  the  building  cast-iron  columns 
have  been  used.  The  requirements  of  construction  were  that 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N,    Y.     21$ 

they  should  be  castings  of  uniform  quality  and  subject  to  the 
following  test:  sample  pieces  one  inch  square  and  five  feet 
long  cast  from  the  same  heat  in  sand  moulds,  placed  on  .sup- 
ports 4  feet  6  inches  apart  and  capable  of  sustaining  a  centre 
load  of  500  Ibs.  when  tested  in  the  rough  bar. 

The  flanges  of  columns  were  turned  true  in  the  lathe  to 


FIG.  105 — CAST-IRON  COLUMN-JOINT  DETAIL. 

•exact  lengths  as  required,  to  make  a  perfect  contact,  and  the 
thickness  of  flanges  was  the  specified  thickness  after  planing. 

The  detail  Fig.  105  shows  the  system  of  connections  adopted 
for  the  cast-iron  columns  generally  throughout  the  building, 
The  seats  for  beams  and  girders  are  cast  with  the  column,  pro- 
ject 5  inches,  and  are  2  inches  thick. 

All  girders  and  beams  when  resting  on  the  above  seats  are 
-connected  together  by  one-inch  bolts  running  through  the 
column,  the  holes  for  which  were  bored  through  steel  tem- 
plates, the  templates  then  used  for  reaming  out  corresponding 
holes  in  end-stiffeners  of  girders  and  in  angle-iron  lugs  of 
ibeams. 

When  the  sectional  area  of  cast-iron  columns  called  for  in- 
terior webs,  said  webs  were  cast  the  same  thickness  of  metal 


2l6  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

as  the  outer  shell,  and  the  area  of  section  maintained  through- 
out the  full  length  of  column. 

Where  a  smaller  column  rests  upon  a  column  of  larger 
size  the  core  of  the  larger  column  at  the  place  of  contact  is  the 
same  size  as  the  core  of  the  smaller,  and  the  metal  tapered 
down  for  a  distance  of  at  least  six  inches. 

The  bolt-holes  in  flanges  were  accurately  cored  i-J  inches  in 
diameter  for  one-inch  bolts. 

The  cores  for  the  columns  were  rounded  off  at  the  corners 
to  a  one-inch  radius ;  the  outer  corners  were  rounded  off  to  a 
radius  of  ^  inch. 

Ample  fillets  are  provided  at  all  corners  of  flanges,  lugs, 
and  brackets,  excepting  where  interfering  with  connections  of 
beams  and  girders. 

Steel  Columns. — The  steel  columns  throughout  the  build- 
ing, as  shown  on  the  beam  plan,  are  composed  of  Z  bars,  angles,, 
channels,  and  such  combinations  of  shapes  as  indicated.  The 
different  members  are  all  riveted  together  by  machine  and 
made  in  lengths  about  40  feet  long,  or  equal  in  most  cases  to» 
three  stones  in  the  height  of  building. 

All  abutting  ends  are  planed,  the  joints  fully  spliced  with 
steel  plates  and  cover-angles,  and  when  the  columns  were 
placed  in  position  were  securely  riveted  together.  All  seats, 
for  beams  and  girders  consist  of  6"  X  6"  X  i"  angles,  as  shown 
in  the  detail  Fig.  106,  and  riveted  to  the  column  ;  a  similar 
angle  of  corresponding  size  is  provided  on  top  side  of  girder 
as  shown  ;  it  is  also  riveted  to  the  column,  beam,  and  girders. 

Where  a  steel  column  starts  upon  one  of  cast-iron,  the  foot 
of  the  steel  column  is  reinforced  by  plates  and  angles  and 
riveted  to  a  wrought-steel  plate,  which  latter  is  bolted  to  the 
flange  of  the  cast-iron  column  with  one-inch  bolts.  The  splices 
are  arranged  so  that  they  come  above  and  as  near  the  floor- 
level  as  practicable ;  the  full  section  of  the  lower  heavy  column 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     2\J 


extends  up  to  the  joint.     The  splicing  of  one  of  the  lighter 
side-wall  columns  is  shown  in  detail,  Fig.  106. 


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FIG.  106. — STEEL  COLUMN- JOINT  DF.TAIL. 

In  proportioning  the  splices  of  the  other  columns,  the  area 
of  the  splices,  plates,  and  angle-splices  is  equal  to  the  area  of 
the  next  column  above,  and  the  number  and  size  of  rivets  are 
such  that  they  transmit  the  full  strain  of  the  upper  column. 
Where  the  section  of  the  lighter  columns  is  thinner  the  dif- 
ference is  made  up  by  filling-plates  of  proper  size  and  thick- 
ness. 

Where  the  steel  columns  are  made  up  of  plates  and  chan- 
nels, they  are  put  together  in  box  form,  as  nearly  square  as 
practicable,  and  the  channels  placed  with  flanges  facing  each 
other  and  connected  together  with  lattice-bars  2|"  X  f "  of 
flat  rolled  steel.  The  bars  are  set  at  an  angle  of  60°  to  the  axis 


2l8  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

of  the  column  and  riveted  to  the  flanges  of  channels.  The 
latticing  on  one  side  is  run  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  on 
the  other. 

Where  the  columns  are  made  of  more  than  one  web  with 
no  cover-plates,  the  web-plates  are  spread  as  indicated  on  wall- 
section,  Fig.  104,  with  stay-plates  9''  wide  by  the  width  of 
the  column,  and  of  a  thickness  equal  to  the  angle-iron  used  in 
the  column,  placed  not  over  three  feet  from  centres  on  each 
side,  and  riveted  to  each  flange  with  three  rivets. 

In  addition  to  stay-plates  there  are  angle-stiffeners  placed 
every  three  feet  apart  each  side  of  the  web,  -J  inch  less  than  the 
general  size  of  angles  used  in  the  column,  and  in  thickness  -J- 
less,  but  none  less  than  T5^  inch.  Filler-plates  are  placed  back 
of  each  angle-stiffener  which  completely  fill  the  intervening 
space  to  web. 

The  detail  shows  in  plan  view  angle  knee-braces  of 
3"  X  3"  X  i"  L's  and  position  of  wall  line,  which  is  4^  inches 
inside  the  building  line.  It  also  shows  the  2O-inch  floor-girder 
and  beam  connection  to  the  same. 

The  girders  are  riveted  to  the  columns  as  shown  in  the 
detail,  and  the  number  of  rivets  forming  this  connection  is 
such  that  the  shearing  strain  on  the  rivets  does  not  exceed 
9000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  rivets  in  the  girder-stiffener  are  calculated  to  carry  the 
entire  load. 

Riveting. — The  rivets  throughout  the  building  are  gen- 
erally y ',  yfj  and  \"  in  diameter.  The  size  used,  however,  is 
not  less  than  the  thickness  of  the  heaviest  member  through 
which  the  rivet  passes.  The  rivet-pitch  is  not  less  than  three 
times  its  diameter,  nor  more  than  6  inches,  and  proportioned 
to  sustain  the  loads  on  columns,  girders,  and  beams  without 
being  strained  to  exceed  9000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  in  shear  or 
15,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  on  the  bearing  surface.  No  rivets 
are  closer  to  the  edge  of  any  member  than  i^  inches  for  one- 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     2 19 

inch  rivets,  if  for  seven-eighths  rivets,  and  ij  for  three-quarter 
rivets. 

Cast-iron  Lintels. — Cast-iron  lintels  were  provided  over 
each  and  every  opening  in  .outside  walls  and  where  walls  were 
of  masonry.  The  width  of  lintels  ever  the  windows  of  side 
walls  is  4"  less  than  the  thickness  of  wall.  In  the  court  they 
cover  the  entire  wall  and  sustain  the  brick  head.  The  outside 
face  is  neatly  moulded.  Those  for  New  Street  are  nearly  the 
full  thickness  of  wall  and  support  the  terra-cotta  head.  Those 
for  Broadway  are  governed  by  the  reveal  of  the  granite,  and 
support  the  full  brick  wall  back  of  granite.  The  thickness  of 
metal  up  to  a  four-foot  span  is  £  inch,  up  to  five-foot  spans,  £ 
inch,  and  above  five  feet  I  inch. 

Framing  in  Fire-proof  Block  Partitions. — All  openings 
of  doors  and  windows  in  block  partitions  are  framed  of  4-inch 
channel  uprights  extending  through  the  height  of  story,  and 
secured  top  and  bottom  by  3-inch  angles  to  beams  or  girders 
as  the  case  may  be.  A  similar  channel  is  placed  horizontally  at 
the  heads  of  all  doors,  at  the  heads  and  sills  of  all  windows, 
with  the  flanges  turned  outward  in  all  cases,  to  hold  the  blocks 
of  partition  in  position. 

Anchoring  of  Walls.  —  Spear-anchors  were  provided 
throughout  the  building  above  the  level  of  adjoining  buildings, 
of  i''  X  li"  flat  iron  with  |-inch  spear  ends,  to  tie  all  walls  pass- 
ing in  front  of  the  wall  columns  on  the  outside,  and  were  placed 
every  5  feet  in  height  on  each  side  of  the  columns.  Similar 
anchors  were  provided  at  the  top  and  bottom  flanges  of  wall- 
girders  at  intervals  of  5  feet,  and  so  placed  in  the  walls  that 
the  spears  were  vertical. 

Heavy  anchors  were  provided  in  the  Broadway  front, 
formed  of  4"  X  4"  X  \"  steel  angle  double  lugs  riveted  to  the 
columns  every  5  feet  vertically,  with  3"  X  \"  flat  steel  bars 
bolted  between  each  pair  of  lugs  and  extending  out  as  far  as 
•the  granite  facing  permitted,  with  a  spear  I  inch  in  diameter 


22O 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS, 


and  24  inches  long.  The  New  Street  wall  and  court  walls  were 
provided  with  the  same  anchors  as  used  in  the  side  walls. 

Arcade  at   Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth   Stories. — At    the 

fifteenth  and  sixteenth  floor-levels  there  is  constructed  an  ar- 
cade, as  shown  upon  the  perspective  Fig.  ioi,a  skeleton  struc- 
ture supported  upon  two  latticed  arches  of  heavy  6"  X  6" 
angles  and  latticing  connected  at  the  ends  by  bolts  running 
through  columns  12  and  16.  These  arches  are  connected 
together  on  top  with  5-inch  steel  beams,  and  at  bottom  by 
3"  X  3"  angles  spaced  3  feet  apart.  The  entire  framework  is. 
covered  with  copper,  and  not  only  improves  the  appearance  of 
the  south  side,  but  acts  in  a  great  measure  as  a  suitable  brace 
for  the  upper  portion  of  the  building. 

Tower  and  Dome. — The  recessed  portion  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  stories  of  the  front  is  built  upon  four  plate 
girders  running  parallel  with  the  front  and  supported  upon 
two  trusses,  shown  at  Fig.  107.  The  structural  work  of  the 


I  It 

FIG.  107. — TRUSSES  SUPPORTING  RECESSED  FRONT  AT  FIFTEENTH  FLOOK. 

tower  and  dome  rests  upon  a  foundation  prepared  upon  the 
level  of  the  main  roof  and  upon  the  columns  which  are  sup- 
ported by  the  above  trusses. 

From  this  foundation  twelve  columns  start,  made  of  plates 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     22  L 

and  angles  and  latticed  with  steel  angles.  These  latticed  angles,, 
and  diagonal  angles  to  resist  the  wind-strains,  are  placed  be- 
tween the  columns  and  also  on  the  outside,  and  connected  to 
the  columns  and  to  each  other  by  connecting  plates  at  the  in- 
tersections. 

These  columns  form  the  tower,  29  feet  9^  inches  square  by 
34  feet  high,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  circular  portion.  At 
this  height  they  are  connected  to  a  box  girder  extending 
around  the  four  sides  of  tower. 

The  floor  at  the  beginning  of  the  circular  portion  is  framed 
with  plate  girders  and  beams,  upon  which  the  eight  latticed 
ribs  rest.  This  circular  frame  is  24  feet  in  diameter  by  27  feet 
high  ;  the  ribs  are  constructed  of  four  angles  4"  X  4"  X  f  " 
with  single  latticing  on  four  sides  of  2^"  X  2j"  X  i"  L's. 
Eight  arched  ribs  start  from  the  eight  ribs  before  described, 
26  feet  9^  inches  high,  terminate  and  butt  against  a  circular 
girder  made  of  a  steel  plate  18"  X  i",  and  two  angles  6"  X  6'' 
X  i"  fully  spliced  and  bent  to  a  circle. 

The  eight  arched  ribs  are  made  of  four  flange-angles. 
A"  X  3"  X  f",  double-latticed  with  angle-bars,  3"  X  2"  X  i", 
all  securely  riveted  together.  The  head  and  foot  of  arched 
ribs  are  reinforced  by  plates  and  angles.  From  the  foot  of  the 
arched  ribs  an  eight-inch  steel  pipe  starts,  and  extends  through 
the  lantern. 

The  lantern  is  5  ft.  9  in.  in  diameter,  14  ft.  high,  and  formed 
of  eight  6"  X  3i"  X  i"  angles  riveted  together  in  pairs,  bent 
to  a  circle  at  the  top  and  connected  to  the  compression-ring 
by  steel  plates. 

The  dome  portion  of  the  tower  is  covered  with  3"  X  3/v 
X  f "  tees,  bent  and  twisted  to  the  shape  of  the  dome,  placed 
20  inches  between  centres  to  hold  terra-cotta  blocks. 

The  entire  exterior  facing  of  the  tower  and  dome  is  covered 
with  cold-rolled  copper  upon  fire-proof  block.  All  cornices,, 
mouldings,  and  ribs  are  secured  to  wrought-iron  brackets. 


222  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

The  entire  height  of  tower,  dome,  and  lantern,  from  the 
•roof-level,  is  IOI  feet  9^  inches,  and  is  constructed  with  ample 
rigidity  to  resist  a  wind-pressure  of  50  pounds  per  square  foot 
upon  its  surface  blowing  in  any  direction.  The  rest  of  the 
building  is  calculated  to  withstand  a  pressure  of  30  pounds  per 
square  foot. 

Foundations  by  the  Pneumatic  Process. — The  great 
height,  the  massive  metal  and  masonry  construction,  impose 
enormous  loads  on  the  foundations,  amounting  to  as  much  as 
2000  tons  for  some  single  columns,  and  giving  about  7300 
pounds  per  square  foot  on  the  whole  area  of  the  lot.  For  this 
reason  the  so-called  pneumatic  process  of  sinking  a  pier  was 
adopted  ;  and  the  cantilever  principle,  so  well  known  in  bridge 
construction,  has  been  employed  in  distributing  the  load  of  the 
column  proper  over  the  piers  formed  by  caissons.  This  is 
probably  the  first  time  this  construction  has  ever  been  em- 
ployed for  carrying  down  the  foundations  of  a  large  building, 
although  common  enough  in  the  construction  of  bridge  piers 
and  foundations  in  or  near  the  water. 

The  enormous  weight  referred  to  above  could  not  be  safely 
carried  on  the  natural  soil,  upon  which  this  site,  which  is  es- 
sentially of  mud  and  quicksand  to  the  bed-rock.  The  latter  has 
SL  fairly  level  surface  about  54  feet  below  the  Broadway  street- 
level. 

Above  this  rock  the  water  percolates  very  freely,  standing 
at  a  level  of  about  22  feet  below  the  Broadway  level. 

If  piles  had  been  driven  as  close  together  as  the  city  regu- 
lations permit — i.e.,  30  inches  centre  to  centre  over  the  whole 
area, — about  1323  might  have  been  placed,  and  would  have 
carried  an  average  load  of  45,300  pounds  each,  which  was  inad- 
missible, the  statute  law  of  New  York  allowing  only  40,000 
pounds  each  on  piles  2  ft.  6  in.  apart  and  with  a  smallest  diam- 
eter of  5  inches.  Special  foundations  were  therefore  neces- 
.sary,  and  it  was  imperative  that  their  construction  and  duty 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     2  2  3; 


should  not  jeopardize  nor  disturb  the  existing  adjacent  build- 
ings. 

On  the  south  side  the  six-story  Consolidated  Exchange 
Building  is  founded  on  piles,  which  are  supposed  to  extend  to 
the  rock.  On  the  north  the  foundations  of  a  four-story  brick 
building  rest  on  earth  about  28  feet  above  the  rock,  and  were 
especially  liable  to  injury  from  disturbances  of  the  adjoining 
soil,  which  was  so  wet  and  soft  as  to  be  likely  to  flow  if  the. 


FIG.  108. — SECTION  SHOWING  MANNER  OF  EXCAVATING  IN  CAISSONS. 

pressure  was  much  increased  by  heavy  loading  or  diminished 
by  the  excavation  of  pits  and  trenches.  It  was  determined, 
therefore,  to  carry  the  foundations  on  solid  masonry-piers 
down  to  bed-rock.  The  construction  of  the  piers  by  the  pneu- 
matic-caisson process  adopted  was  after  careful  consideration 
by  the  architects,  backed  by  opinions  from  prominent  bridge 
engineers  as  to  its  feasibility. 

In  executing  the  work  an  excavation  about  28  feet  below 


.224  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

grade  (to  water-line)  was  made  over  the  whole  area  of  the  lot. 
Then  the  steel  caissons  were  received,  the  smaller  ones  com- 
plete and  the  larger  ones  in  sections,  bolted  together  when 
.necessary,  and  located  in  their  exact  horizontal  positions, 
-calked  and  roofed  with  heavy  beams  to  form  a  platform,  on 
which  the  brick  masonry  was  started  and  built  up  for  a  few 
feet  before  the  workmen  entered  the  excavating-chamber  and 
began  digging  out  the  soil.  See  the  following  vignette,  which 
shows  a  vertical  section  through  caisson,  pier,  air-lock,  and 
shaft,  reprneseting  the  excavators  at  work  and  shovelling  mud 
into  the  foot  of  the  blowpipe,  from  which  it  is  ejected  above. 
One  man  is  stationed  in  the  chamber  at  the  valve  to  close  it  as 
soon  as  the  air  begins  to  escape.  (See  Engineering  Record, 
Jan.  20.) 

The  removal  of  the  soil  allowed  the  caissons  to  gradually 
sink  to  the  rock  below,  without  disturbing  the  adjacent  earth, 
which  was  kept  from  flowing  in  by  maintaining  an  interior 
pneumatic  pressure  slightly  in  excess  of  the  outside  hydro- 
static pressure  due  to  the  distance  of  the  bottom  of  the  caisson 
below  the  water-line. 

The  adjacent  buildings  were  shored  up  at  the  outset  and 
scrupulously  watched,  observations  being  made  to  determine 
any  possible  displacement  or  injury  of  their  walls,  which  were 
not  seriously  damaged,  though  the  pressure  they  exerted  on 
the  yielding  soil  tended  to  deflect  the  caissons  which  were 
sunk  within  a  foot  of  the  walls. 

The  caissons  encountered  boulders  and  other  obstructions, 
,and  were  sunk  through  the  fine  soil  and  mud  at  an  average 
rate  of  four  feet  per  day.  No  blasting  was  required  until  the 
bed-rock  was  reached  and  levelled  off  under  the  edges,  and 
stepped  into  horizontal  surfaces  throughout  the  extent  of  the 
excavating-chamber.  Usually  one  caisson  was  being  sunk 
while  another  was  being  prepared,  there  being  only  one  time 
when  air-pressure  was  simultaneously  maintained  in  two  cais- 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     22$ 

sons.  Generally  about  eight  days  were  required  to  sink  each 
caisson. 

Before  beginning  the  caisson-work  the  adjacent  wall  of  the 
building  north  of  the  lot  was  temporarily  supported  by  the 
insertion  of  needle-beams  to  permit  the  removal  of  the  old 
footing,  which  was  replaced  by  a  new  concrete  footing,  about 
IO  feet  wide  by  4  feet  high,  which  formed  a  continuous  foun- 
dation for  that  wall,  and  also  for  the  'lower  part  of  the  light 
side-wall  of  the  new  building. 

The  caisson,  considered  as  an  aid  in  sinking  foundation 
through  wet  material,  consists  of  an  inverted  box  having  a 
sectional  shape  according  to  the  work  it  is  intended  to  do — 
sometimes  circular — as  shown  under  column  5,  which  is  13  feet 
4  inches  in  diameter  sunk  30  feet  under  column  10,  15  feet 
in  diameter  sunk  32  feet  8  inches,  under  column  24,  14  feet 
in  diameter  sunk  33  feet  6  inches,  under  column  25,  10  feet  in 
diameter  sunk  33  feet  9  inches — and  also  made  sometimes 
square,  rectangular,  or  irregular. 

The  principle  is  that,  as  long  as  the  air-pressure  in  the  box 
is  maintained  equal  to  or  slightly  above  the  water-pressure 
upon  the  outside  down  to  the  shoe  or  lower  edge  of  the  cais- 
son, it  will  be  impossible  for  any  water  to  enter.  Work  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  chamber  formed  by  the  caisson,  in  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  cases,  at  the  same  time  as  the  masonry  is  placed  on 
top. 

As  the  work  of  excavation  advances  the  caisson  sinks,  the 
air-pressure  in  the  inside  being  reduced  slightly  until  the  dead 
weight  of  the  caisson  itself  and  the  masonry  upon  the  top  of  it 
are  sufficient  to  overcome  the  frictional  grip  or  resistance  due 
to  the  -bearing  upon  the  outside  surface  of  the  material  that  it 
is  passing  through.  In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  increase 
the  dead  load  by  piling  pig-iron  on  top.  Entrance  to  the  cais- 
son is  effected  through  the  so-called  air-lock  ;  sometimes  only 
one  of  which  is  employed  and  sometimes  two,  one  being  for 


226 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


men  and  the  other  for  material.  This  air-lock  is  a  small  cham- 
ber provided  at  each  end  with  a  door,  these  doors  opening  in- 
wardly toward  the  inside  of  the  caisson.  We  will  suppose  that 


Jl/l  l\l 
._-!—  * * 


the  inner  door  of  the  caisson  is  closed  and  the  outer  door  open. 
The  inner  door  is  firmly  held  in  closed  position  by  reason  of 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     22 / 

the  interior  air-pressure,  which,  it  is  not  expected,  will  at  any 
time  exceed  12  or  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  equal  to  about 
from  27  to  34  feet  head  of  water.  Entering  the  air-lock  the 
outer  door  is  closed,  and  the  air  under  pressure  admitted 
through  a  suitable  valve  into  the  air-lock.  When  the  air  in  the 
air-lock  has  become  of  the  same  pressure  as  that  in  the  caisson 
it  is  evident  that  the  pressure  on  the  inner  door  will  be 
equal  on  both  sides  and  it  can  be  opened,  the  outer  door 
then  preventing  the  escape  of  the  air  under  pressure.  The  re- 
versal of  this  operation,  of  course,  permits  of  the  air  under 
pressure  in  the  air-lock  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere. 

After  the  caissons  have  been  sunk  to  bed-rock,  they  are 
cleaned  out  and  filled  with  concrete,  thus  forming  a  continuous 
pier  from  the  rock  up  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  fifteen  caissons  are  arranged  as  shown  upon  the  plan 
view  Fig.  109,  and  the  location  of  the  main  columns  above 
them,  all  but  one  of  which  are  supported  by  the  caissons. 
The  exception,  column  No.  6,  is  carried  by  25  piles  driven  to 
refusal  and  capped  with  a  concrete  block  10  ft.  X  10  ft.  X  3  ft. 
Cylindrical  caissons  are  the  most  economical  and  convenient, 
and  would  have  been  used  throughout  if  the  conditions  had 
permitted,  but  the  positions  of  the  columns  and  the  necessity 
of  distributing  the  load  along  the  building  lines,  and  other  con- 
siderations, determined  the  use  of  rectangular  ones,  except  in 
four  cases,  B,  £,  7,  and  G,  under  columns  5,  24,  10,  and  25. 

Caisson  Detail. — The  illustration  Fig.  no  represents  in 
detail  the  construction  of  caisson  M,  which  supports  columns 
15,  1 6,  22,  and  23.  This  caisson  is  25  ft.  6  in.  by  21  ft.  6  in. 
and  u  ft.  6  in.  high.  It  is  built  of  steel  plates,  angles,  beams, 
and  plate  girders.  The  sides  are  of  J-inch  steel  plates, 
stiffened  with  angle-brackets  made  of  6"  X  6"  angles  and 
further  strengthened  by  /-inch  steel  bulbs  placed  horizontally 
between  the  brackets.  The  roof  is  of  f-inch  plates,  and  upon 
these  are  placed  steel  I  beams  and  steel  plate  girders  (see  the 


228 


SKELETON   CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


sections  Fig.  in),  to  support  the  loads  of  masonry  while  sink- 
ing progressed.     The   sides   are    carried    down    a   few    inches 


::rs  *~^r^"-*^i^~i1*3^issiS — 

FIG.  no. — SECTIONAL  PLAN  AND  TOP  VIEW  OF  CAISSON  M. 
below  the  bulbs  and  the  foot  of  the  brackets,  and  reinforced 
by  heavy  steel  plates  16  in.  wide  and  -J  in.  thick  and  riveted  to 

if— ^1" 


FIG.  in.— CAISSON  SECTIONS. 

the  outer  shell  with  {-inch  countersunk  rivets.     In  the  center 
of  roof  a  shaft  4  ft.  in  diameter  is  constructed  with  air-lock  for 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    Y.     22Q 

the  use  of  men  in  entering  and  leaving  the  working  chamber,  and 
.also  for  filling  the  chamber  after  the  cassion  had  reached  rock. 
There  are  also  from  four  to  six  4-inch  pipes  in  the  roof  of  each 
caisson  for  use  as  "  blowouts  "  and  for  the  admisions  of  air. 

This  caisson  contains  467  cubic  yards  of  brickwork  and 
173  cubic  yards  of  concrete  in  the  chamber. 

The  construction  of  the  circular  caissons  is  essentially  the 
:same  as  the  above. 

The  substructure  contains  about  1260  cubic  yards  of  con- 
crete and  3400  cubic  yards  of  brickwork, 

Cantilever  Construction. — The  columns  supporting  the 
outer  side-walls  of  the  building  are  located  so  near  the  building 
lines  as  to  be  near  or  beyond  the  outer  edge  of  the  foundation- 


Pic.  112. — TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  FOUNDATION  AND  CANTILEVER  GIRDER. 
piers,  so  that  if  they  had  been  directly  supported  therefrom 
they  would  have  loaded  it  eccentrically  and  produced  un- 
desirable irregularities  of  pressure.  This  condition  is  avoided 
-and  the  weights  transmitted  to  the  centre  of  the  piers  by  the 
intervention  of  heavy  plate  girders  as  cantilevers,  which  sup- 
port the  columns  in  the  required  positions  and  transfer  their 


230 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


loads  to  the  proper  bearings  above  the  piers.  See  the  trans- 
verse section  Fig.  112.  From  these  bearings  the  load  is 
distributed  over  the  whole  area  of  masonry  by  special  steel 
bolsters  that  diminish  the  unit  strains  and  equalize  them 
throughout.  The  bolsters  as  shown  under  the  ends  of  the 
cantilever  girders  consist  of  a  row  of  plate  girders  2  ft.  high, 
and  upon  these  another  row  at  right  angles,  3  ft.  6|  in. 
high,  rest. 

This  section  also  shows  the  continuous  cantilever  girders, 
and  the  relative  location  of  the  three  caissons  carrying  this 
particular  structure. 

These  cantilever  girders  consist  of  a  system  of  plate  girders 


(/-nil  PI. 
\2-Fill  Pis.  ai'/z 
\I~FHI  PI.  2I!<2~*       ' 
[8-  if.  S*3te  ->/2  "*  3 


FIG.  113. — CANTILEVER-GIRDER  DETAIL. 

arranged  in  a  box  form  as  shown  in  the  detail  Fig.  113.  The- 
height  of  the  girders  under  centre  of  column  or  the  bracket 
part  is  6  ft.  ;|  in.  It  should  be  particularly  noted  that  the 
columns  at  the  ends  of  the  cantilevers  are  on  the  building  line 
with  the  exception  of  space  sufficient  for  the  insertion  of  fire- 
proof bricks.  The  inner  ends  of  this  cantilever  are  united  by 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.    V. 

a  connecting  bridge  of  plate  girders  4  feet  deep  at  columns 
21  and  22,  columns  23  and  33  being  supported  at  the  outer 
ends.  The  load  supported  by  the  outer  columns  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  bolster-shoes  at  the  centre,  so  that  although  both 
of  the  end  columns  are  outside  of  the  outside  edges  of  their 
respective  caissons,  the  load  they  bear  is  transferred  by  means 
of  the  cantilever  and  bolster-shoes  so  as  to  be  evenly  distrib- 
uted over  the  base  of  the  piers  formed  by  these  caissons. 

That  portion  of  the  specification  under  details  of  con- 
struction describes  in  general  the  conditions  upon  which 
this  work  is  constructed.  "  All  stiffeners  shown  upon  the 
cantilevers  are  to  be  5"  X  3"  X  |"  steel  angles  on  the  inside 
and  5"  X  4"  X  f"  angles  on  the  outside.  The  cantilevers 
within  the  building  are  to  rest  on  steel  shoes.  The  bottom 
and  top  bearing  surfaces  of  said  shoes  shall  be  planed  off 
perfectly  true  and  level,  and  that  portion  resting  upon  said 
shoes;  and  where  the  columns  rest  on  the  cantilevers  per- 
fectly level  seats  shall  be  prepared  as  follows: 

"A  rolled  steel  plate,  one  inch  thick,  of  the  width  of 
the  cantilever  in  one  direction  and  the  width  of  the  steel 
shoe  or  the  flange  of  column  in  the  other  direction,  planed 
perfectly  true,  to  be  riveted  to  the  cantilever  with  counter- 
sunk rivets. 

"  A  solid  bearing  of  the  four  girders  forming  a  cantilever 
to  be  obtained,  if  necessary,  with  thin  steel  plates  of  such 
thickness  as  will  bring  the  bearing  surface  to  a  perfectly 
solid  and  true  contact. 

"  The  tops  of  the  cantilevers  to  be  set  level  throughout, 
and  the  difference  in  height  to  be  made  up  in  the  granite 
capstone. 

"  The  steel  shoe  on  which  cantilevers  rest  shall  be  set 
on  the  stone  caps  on  a  bed  formed  of  heavy  sheet  lead 
bedded  in  Portland  cement. 

"  The  girders  composing  the   cantilevers   shall   be   bolted 


232  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

together  with  one-inch  bolts  through  and  through  the 
stiffener  angles ;  under  each  line  of  columns  resting  on 
said  cantilevers  and  over  the  shoe  bearing,  spaced  vertically 
one  foot  apart ;  there  will  also  be  two  vertical  lines  of  bolts 
under  each  column  and  four  lines  over  the  shoe  bearing. 

"  Before  setting  the  cantilever  girders  in  position,  the 
inner  sides  of  the  outer  girders  and  both  sides  of  inner 
girders  shall  be  run  full  with  concrete,  and  be  allowed  to 
set  hard." 

The  first  tier  of  floor-beams  are  supported  by  the  cantilever 
girders  and  so  framed  as  to  make  the  top  of  beams  flush  with 
the  top  of  highest  rivet-heads  in  said  girders. 

The  shoes  under  cantilevers  and  the  shoes  of  columns 
setting  directly  on  granite  capstones  are  made  of  the  best 
quality  cast  steel,  and  free  from  blow-holes.  The  cantilevers 
designed  to  be  placed  under  the  piers  and  columns  of 
Broadway  front  are  composed  as  follows : 

Two  layers  of  beams, — the  lower  composed  of  ten  1 5-inch 
steel  beams,  200  pounds  per  yard,  running  parallel  with  the 
front ;  the  upper  composed  of  four  beams  of  the  same  height 
and  set  at  right  angles  to  the  lower. 

Each  layer  is  thoroughly  and  securely  bolted  together 
with  separators  and  bolts,  and  the  spaces  between  beams  are 
rilled  with  cement. 

The  failures  of  the  other  portions  of  the  work  throughout 
a  building  due  to  faulty  workmanship  are  rare  in  comparison 
with  those  due  to  defective  foundations;  therefore,  a  few  re- 
marks are  inserted  on  account  of  the  importance  the  subject 
bears  to  the  construction  of  these  high  buildings,  but  for  fuller 
information  the  reader  should  refer  to  works  which  treat  solely 
upon  "  Masonry  Construction." 

In  designing  the  foundations  of  walls  and  piers  when  they 
rest  upon  a  yielding  stratum,  proper  provision  must  be  made 
for  the  uniform  distribution  of  the  weight,  and  to  form  such  a 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE-INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.   Y.    233 

solid  base  for  this  superstructure  that  no  movement  shall  take 
place  after  its  erection.  But  all  structures  built  of  coarse 
masonry,  whether  of  stone  or  brick,  will  settle  to  a  certain 
extent ;  and,  with  few  exceptions,  all  soils  will  become  com- 
pressed under  the  weight  of  almost  any  building. 

The  main  object,  therefore,  is  to  proportion  the  different 
loads  so  that  the  bearing  unit  of  ground  area  will  be  equal, 
and  a  uniform  settlement  of  the  completed  structure  is  ensured. 

To  Determine  the  Nature  of  the  Soil. — If  the  nature  of 
the  soil  upon  which  the  building  is  to  be  constructed  cannot  be 
determined  by  excavations  made  for  surrounding  buildings, 
wells,  etc.,  proper  arrangements  must  be  made  for  testing  the 
subsoil  by  boring  holes  at  intervals  considerably  deeper  than  the 
walls  are  intended.  It  will  usually  be  sufficient  to  examine  the 
soil  with  an  iron  bar,  driving  it  from  4  to  5  feet  deeper  than 
the  foundation  trenches. 

In  soft  soil,  a  small  gas-pipe  is  driven  with  a  maul  from  a 
temporary  scaffold,  the  height  of  which  will  depend  upon  the 
length  of  the  section  of  the  pipe.  Soundings  30  to  40  feet 
deep  can  be  made  in  this  manner. 

Foundations  on  Rock. — To  prepare  a  rock  bed  for  a  foun- 
dation, cut  away  the  lower  and  decayed  portions  of  the  rock, 
and  dress  it  to  a  plane  surface  as  nearly  perpendicular  to  the 
direction  of  the  pressure  as  practicable.  If  there  are  any 
fissures  they  should  be  filled  with  concrete. 

The  ultimate  crushing  strength  of  stone,  as  determined  by 
crushing  small  cubes,  ranges  from  1 80  tons  per  square  foot  for 
the  softest  stone  to  1800  tons  per  square  foot  for  the  hardest. 

The  safe  bearing  power  of  rock  should  be  about  one-tenth 
of  the  ultimate  strength  of  cubes ;  that  is  to  say,  the  safe-bear- 
ing power  of  solid  rock  is  not  less  than  18  tons  per  square  foot 
for  the  softest,  and  180  tons  for  the  hardest.  Almost  any  rock 
when  well-bedded  will  bear  the  heaviest  load  than  can  be 
brought  upon  it  by  any  masonry  construction. 


234  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 

Foundations  upon  Clay. — Foundations  on  clay  should  be 
laid  at  such  depths  as  to  be  unaffected  by  the  weather ;  since 
clay,  at  even  considerable  depths,  will  gain  and  lose  consider- 
able water  as  the  seasons  change.  The  bearing  power  of  clayey 
soils  can  be  very  much  improved  by  drainage  or  by  preventing 
the  penetration  of  water.  When  coarse  sand  or  gravel  is 
mixed  with  the  clay,  its  supporting  power  is  greatly  increased, 
being  greater  in  proportion  as  the  quantity  of  these  materials 
is  greater.  When  they  are  present  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
clay  is  just  sufficient  to  bind  them  together,  the  combination 
will  bear  as  heavy  loads  as  the  softer  rocks. 

From  the  experiments  made  in  connection  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  capitol  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  upon  blue  clay  con- 
taining from  60  to  90  per  cent  of  alumina,  and  the  remainder 
being  fine  siliceous  sand,  less  than  6  tons  per  square  foot  was 
the  extreme  supporting  power,  and  2  tons  per  square  foot  the 
load  which  might  be  safely  imposed. 

The  safe  load  allowed  upon  ordinary  clay  if  in  danger  of 
being  saturated  by  water,  is  from  i J  to  2  tons  per  square  foot ; 
if  kept  dry,  3  to  4  tons. 

Foundations  upon  Sand. — Sandy  soils  vary  from  coarse 
gravel  to  fine  sand,  and  when  mixed  make  one  of  the  best  and 
firmest  of  foundations.  Sand  well  cemented  with  clay  and 
compacted,  if  protected  from  water,  will  safely  carry  4  to  6 
tons  per  square  foot. 

Foundations  upon  Piles. — A  pile  is  generally  understood 
to  be  a  round  timber  driven  into  the  soil ;  or,  what  is  called  a 
bearing-p\\Qy  one  used  to  sustain  a  vertical  load. 

Spruce  and  hemlock  answer  for  foundation-piles  in  soft  or 
medium  soil,  or  for  piles  always  under  water ;  the  hard  pines, 
elm,  and  beech  for  firmer  soils ;  the  hard  oaks  for  still  more 
compact  soils. 

The  following  paragraph  from  the  New  York  Building  Law 
of  1892  makes  provision  for  the  construction  of  pile  and  other 
foundations  : 


THE  MANHAT7\4N  LIFE-INSURANCE  BUILDING,   N,   Y.    235 

"  Every  building,  except  buildings  erected  upon  wharves  or 
piers  on  the  water-front,  shall  have  foundations  laid  not  less 
than  four  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  on  the  solid 
ground,  or  level  surface  of  rock,  or  upon  piles  or  ranging  timbers. 

"  Piles  intended  for  a  wall,  pier,  or  post  to  rest  upon  shall 
not  be  less  than  jive  inches  in  diameter  at  the  smallest  end,*  and 
shall  not  be  spaced  more  than  30  inches  on  centres,  or  nearer, 
if  required  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  and  they  shall 
be  driven  to  a  solid  bearing. 

"  No  pile  shall  be  weighted  with  a  load  exceeding  40,000 
pounds.  The  tops  of  all  piles  shall  be  cut  off  below  the  lowest 
water-line.  When  required,  concrete  shall  be  rammed  down 
in  the  interspaces  between  the  heads  of  the  piles  to  a  depth 
•and  thickness  of  not  less  than  12  inches  and  for  I  foot  in  width 
outside  of  the  piles. 

"  When  ranging  and  capping  timbers  are  laid  on  piles  for 
foundations  they  shall  be  of  hardwood,  not  less  than  6  inches 
thick,  and  properly  joined  together,  and  their  tops  laid  below 
the  water-line. 

"  When  crib-footings  of  iron  or  steel  are  used  below  the 
water-level,  the  same  shall  be  entirely  coated  with  coal-tar, 
paraffine  varnish,  or  other  suitable  preparation  before  being 
placed  in  position. 

"  When  footings  of  iron  or  steel  for  columns  are  placed 
below  the  water-level,  they  shall  be  similarly  coated  for  preser- 
vation against  rust."  * 

"  All  base-stones  shall  be  well  bedded  and  crosswise,  edge 
to  edge.  If  stepped-up  footings  of  brick  are  used  in  place  of 
stone  above  the  concrete,  the  steps  one  offsets,  if  laid  in  single 
courses,  shall  not  exceed  i^  in. ;  or,  if  laid  in  double  courses, 
then  each  shall  not  exceed  3  in.,  starting  with  the  brick-work 
covering  the  entire  width  of  the  concrete,  so  as  to  properly 
distribute  the  load  to  be  imposed  thereon." 

*  For  foundation-walls  and  footings,  refer  to  article  under  New  York  Build- 
ing Law  relating  to  skeleton  construction,  Chapter  I. 


236 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  BUILDINGS. 


"  If  in  place  of  a  continuous  foundation-wall  isolated  piers- 
are  to  be  built  to  support  the  superstructure,  where  the  nature 
of  the  ground  and  the  character  of  the  building  make  it  neces- 
sary, inverted  arches  shall  be  turned  between  the  piers,  at  least 
12  in.  thick  and  of  the  full  width  of  the  piers,  and  resting  upon 
a  continuous  bed  of  concrete  of  sufficient  area  and  at  least  18 
in.  thick.  Or  two  footing-courses  of  large  stone  may  be  used, 
the  bottom  course  to  be  laid  crosswise,  edge  to  edge,  and  the 
top  course  laid  lengthwise,  end  to  end ;  or  one  course  of  con- 
crete and  one  course  of  stone.  The  stones  shall  not  be  less 
than  10  in.  thick  in  each  course,  and  the  concrete  shall  not  be 
less  than  18  in.  thick,  and  the  area  of  the  lower  course  shall  be 
equal  to  area  of  the  base-course  that  would  be  required  under 
a  continuous  wall ;  and  the  outside  pier  shall  be  secured  to  the 
second  pier  with  suitable  iron  rods  and  plates." 

Foundation  upon  Steel  Rails  and  I-beams. — Steel,  usu- 
ally in  the  form  of  railroad  rails  or  I-beams,  is  used  instead  of 

timber  in  foundations.  The  rails. 
or  I-beams  are  placed  side  by  side 
as  shown  (Fig.  1 14),  and  concrete  is 
rammed  in  between  them. 

The  important  advantage  steel 
has  over  wood  is  that  the  offset  can 
be  much  greater,  and  hence  the 
foundations  may  be  shallow  and 
still  not  occupy  the  cellar-space. 

The  foundation  should  be  pre- 
pared by  first  laying  a  bed  of  con- 
crete to  a  depth  of  from  4  to  12  in., 
and  then  placing  upon  this  a  row  of 
I-beams  or  rails.  They  should  be 
placed  far  enough  apart  to  permit 
the  introduction  of  the  concrete  fill- 
ing and  its  proper  tamping  betweea 
the  beams. 


FIG.  1 14. — STEEL-RAIL 
FOUNDATION. 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE-INSURANCE  BUILDING,  N.  Y.    237 

Unless  the  concrete  is  of  unusual  thickness,  it  will  not  be 
advisable  to  exceed  2O-in.  spacing,  since  otherwise  the  concrete 
may  not  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  properly  transmit  the  up- 
ward pressure  of  the  beams. 

The  area  of  the  foundation  having  been  determined  and  its 
centre  having  been  located  with  reference  to  the  axis  of  the 
load,  the  next  step  is  to  determine  how  much  narrower  each 
footing-course  may  be  than  the  one  next  below  it. 

The  projecting  part  of  the  footing  resists  as  a  beam,  fixed 
at  one  end  and  uniformly  loaded. 

The  load  is  the  pressure  on  the  earth  or  on  the  next  course 
below.  The  offset  of  such  a  course  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  pressure  and  the  transverse  strength  of  the  material. 

Evidently  the  size  of  beams  required  will  depend  upon 
their  strength  as  cantilevers  sustaining  the  upward  reaction, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  uniformly  distributed  load. 

Then,  for  a  beam  fixed  at  one  end  and  uniformly  loaded, 

Coefficient 

Safe  load  in  Ibs.  =  —  — = . 

4L 

The  coefficients  for  all  the  different  sizes  of  steel  and  iron 
beams  are  given  in  Chapter  IV,  "  Floor  Loads  and  Floor 
Framing." 


ARCHITECTURAL  IRON  AND  STEEL 

AND   ITS  APPLICATION 


IN    THE 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


WILLIAM    H.    BIRKMIRE. 


To  the  architect  or  builder  who  does  not  care  to  go  into  the 
study  of  details  and  construction,  and  yet  desires  to  avail  himself 
of  the  practice  and  experience  of  others  who  have  made  the  use 
of  iron  and  steel  their  special  study,  this  work  is  of  great  value. 

It  treats  of  Beams  and  Girders  in  Floor  Construction,  Rolled- 
iron  Struts,  Wrought  and  Cast  Iron  Columns,  Fire-proof  Columns, 
Column  Connections,  Cast-iron  Lintels,  Roof-trusses,  Stairways, 
Elevator  Enclosures,  Ornamental  Iron,  Floor-lights  and  Skylights,, 
Vault-lights,  Doors  and  Shutters,  Window-guards  and  Grilles,  etc.^ 
etc.,  with  Specification  of  Ironwork;  and  selected  papers  in  rela- 
tion to  ironwork,  from  a  revision  of  the  present  law  before  the 
legislature  affecting  public  interests  in  the  City  of  New  York,  in 
so  far  as  the  same  regulates  the  construction  of  buildings  in  said 
city.  With  Tables,  selected  expressly  for  this  work,  of  the  properties 
of  Beams,  Channels,  Tees  and  Angles,  used  as  Beams,  Struts  and 
Columns,  Weights  of  Iron  and  Steel  Bars,  Capacity  of  Tanks,  Areas 
of  Circles,  Weights  of  Circular  and  'Square  Cast-iron  Columns> 
Weights  of  Substances,  Tables  of  Squares,  Cubes,  etc.,  Weights  of 
Sheet  Copper,  Brass  and  Iron,  etc. 


8vo,  cloth.     Price,  $3.50, 

FOR    SALE    BY 

JOHN   WILEY   &    SONS, 

43-45  EAST  191h  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 


COMPOUND  RIVETED  GIRDERS 

FOR 

BUILDINGS. 


BY 


WILLIAM    H.    BIRKM1RE 


In  order  to  facilitate  the  calculation  attending  the  construction 
of  wrought-iron  and  steel  riveted  girders,  the  author  has  in  this 
book  endeavored  to  supply  the  link  which  separates  theory  from 
practice.  A  riveted  girder  is  to  be  designed;  the  span,  depth,  and 
loads  are  known  ;  the  strains  are  calculated  by  the  well-known 
bending-moment  formulae,  and  largely  by  the  graphic  method  ; 
lastly,  the  details  of  construction  are  fully  illustrated. 

The  time  consumed  in  wading  through  a  complicated  series  of 
equations  to  reach  a  few  measurements  is  objectionable — at  least  when 
such  measurements  can  at  once  be  had  by  the  graphic  method;  and 
any  one  who  can  draw  accurately  will  be  able  to  calculate  and 
design  girders  with  any  number  of  concentrated  loads,  arrange  plates, 
place  rivets,  etc.,  at  once. 


8vo.     Price,  $2.OO. 

FOR    SALE    BY 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS, 

43-45  EAST  19th  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 


THE 

PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


OF 


AMERICAN  THEATRES, 


WILLIAM    H.    BIRKMIRE. 

For  general  and  practical  information  upon  theatres  we  refer 
architects,  builders,  and  others  to  this  book,  in  which  figured  plans 
and  views  are  given  of  a  few  of  the  best  known  and  most  popular 
theatres  of  this  country. 

The  illustrations  are  of  the  highest  order,  embracing  complete 
views  of  the  Castle  Square  and-  Gaiety  Theatres  of  Boston;  the 
Fifth  Avenue  Theatre,  the  American  Theatre,  Hammerstein's 
•Olympia,  the  Abbey  Theatre,  the  Empire,  and  other  theatres  of 
New  York;  with  their  main  floors,  galleries,  and  complete  sections. 

The  book  also  describes  and  details  the  stage  and  its  appurte- 
nances, and  treats  of  acoustics  and  sighting. 

8vo,  cloth.    Price,  $3.OO. 

FOR  SALE  BY 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS, 

43-45  East  igth  St.,  New  York. 


THE 

PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


OF 


HIGH  OFFICE  BUILDINGS. 


BY 


WILLIAM   H.   BIRKMIRE. 


8vo.      Cloth.      345   pp. 


Price,  $3.50. 


CONTENTS:  Representative  High  Office  Buildings  and 
their  Development;  Floor  Planning;  Floor  Construction  and 
Fire-proofing;  Columns  and  Foundations;  The  Machinery 
Hall  and  all  its  Details;  Plumbing  and  Drainage.  Also  con- 
taining all  the  miscellaneous  details  necessary  for  the  planning 
and  construction  of  such  buildings. 


FOR   SALE   BY 

JOHN   WILEY  &   SONS, 

East    19th  Street, 

NEW  YORK. 


SHORT-TITLE     CATALOGUE 

OF  THE 

PUBLICATIONS 

OF 

JOHN  WILEY   &   SONS, 

NEW    YORK, 
LONDON:    CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED. 


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Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,  5  00 

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Metcalfs  Steel.    A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo,  2  00 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations 8vo,  5  00 

Rockwell's  Roads  and  Pavements  in  France 12mo,  1  25 

Smith's  Wire:  Its  Use  and  Manufacture Small  4to,  3  00 

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RAILWAY  ENGINEERING. 

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Butts's  Civil  Engineer's  Field-book 16mo,  morocco,  2  50 

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Taylor's  Prismoidal  Formulae  and  Earthwork 8vo,  1  50 

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MacCord's  Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  3  00 

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Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  00 

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Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sani- 
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Kichards's  Cost  of  Living  as  Modified  by  Sanitary  Science.  12mo,  1  00 

*  Richards  and  Williams's  The  Dietary  Computer 8vo,  1  50 

RideaPs  Sewage  and  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo,  3  50 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  5  00 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3  60 

WoodhulPs  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene 16mo,  .1  50 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Barker's  Deep-sea  Soundings 8vo,  2  00 

EmmoLis's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Ex- 
cursion   of    the    International    Congress    of    Geologists. 

Large  8vo,  1  50 

Ferrel's  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Winds 8vo,  4  00 

Haines's  American  Railway  Management 12mo,  2  50 

Mott's  Composition,"  Digestibility,  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 

Mounted  chart,  1  25 

"      Fallacy  of  the  Present  Theory  of  Sound 16mo,  1  00 

Ricketts's  History  of  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,   1824- 

1894 Small    8vo,  3  00 

Rotherham's  Emphasised  New  Testament Large  8vo,  2  00 

"  Critical  Emphasised  New  Testament 12mo,  1  60 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog 8vo,  3  50 

Totten's  Important  Question  in  Metrology 8vo,  2  50 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4to,  1  00 

Worcester  and  Atkinson.    Small  Hospitals,  Establishment  and 
Maintenance,  and  Suggestions  for  Hospital  Architecture, 

with  Plans  for  a  Small  Hospital 12mo,  1  25 


HEBREW  AND  CHALDEE  TEXT-BOOKS. 

Green's  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language 8vo,  3  00 

"       Elementary  Hebrew   Grammar 12mo,  1  25 

"       Hebrew  Chrestomathy 8vo,  2  00 

Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament 

Scriptures.     (Tregelles.) Small  4to,  half  morocco,  5  00 

Letteris's  Hebrew  Bible. 8vo,  2  25 


Engineering 
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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


